LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Class     n  r»  A 


American  JJature  feerietf 

Group  IV.     Working  with  Nature 


SHELL-FISH   INDUSTRIES 


BY 


JAMES  L.  KELLOGG 

PROFESSOR    OF    BIOLOGY    IN    WILLIAMS    COLLEGE 


ILLUSTRATED 


^     Of    THE 

UNIVERSITY  4j 

OF 
.CALUfQHt** 


NEW    YORK 

HENRY  HOLT  AND  COMPANY 
1910 


COPYRIGHT,  1910, 

BY 
HENRY  HOLT  AND  COMPANY 

Published  February  1910 


PREFACE 

IT  was  suggested  to  me  that  I  should  try  to  prepare 
this  account  of  our  food  mollusks  for  three  groups  of  per- 
sons, namely,  those  who  eat  them,  those  who  may  be  or 
desire  to  become  directly  interested  in  their  culture,  and 
those  who  may  have  an  interest  in  the  biological  problems 
involved  in  their  artificial  control.  This  suggestion  I 
adopted,  and  many  times  since  have  wondered  at  the  reck- 
lessness of  my  courage  in  attempting  a  performance  of  so 
varied  a  character.  I  recall  vividly  the  impression  made 
on  my  youthful  mind  years  ago  on  witnessing  the  evolu- 
tions of  three  beautifully  matched  horses  and  the  graceful 
feat  of  James  Robinson  in  riding  them  around  a  ring. 
Though  in  my  wildest  childhood  imaginings  I  never 
dreamed  of  attempting  or  desired  to  attempt  so  skilful 
an  act,  I  have  in  the  last  months,  at  a  period  of  life  that 
should  conventionally  be  characterized  at  least  by  sedate- 
ness,  experienced  the  disquieting  sensation  of  having  actu- 
ally attempted  much  the  same  kind  of  a  performance  in 
thus  endeavoring  to  present  several  topics  that  might  hold 
the  attention  of  readers  possessing  widely  different  in- 
terests. While  desiring  to  exhibit  these  subjects  so  as  to 
bring  out  their  most  interesting  features,  I,  of  course, 
have  been  compelled  to  present  them  for  brief  intervals 
one  at  a  time,  thus  always  giving  two-thirds  of  my 
readers  an  opportunity  to  yawn.  If,  however,  it  should 
happen  that  the  other  third  is  interested,  I  shall  be  amply 
paid  for  my  effort. 

iii 


iv  Preface 

While  the  first  three  chapters,  that  deal  with  some  ana- 
tomical, developmental,  and  physiological  facts,  may  re- 
quire closer  attention  than  some  of  the  others,  they  are  de- 
signed in  part  to  make  clearer  several  subjects  treated  sub- 
sequently. That  on  anatomy  has  been  made  as  simple 
as  possible,  and  the  illustrations  are  new.  The  short  ac- 
count of  a  few  ciliary  mechanisms  in  the  third  chapter  is 
from  my  own  observations,  and  previously  I  have  pub- 
lished only  those  on  Venus.  It  may  be  that  even  the 
small  part  of  my  cilia  work  here  presented  will  be  of  some 
interest  to  biologists,  for  the  subject  itself  is  practically 
new. 

A  relatively  large  amount  of  attention  has,  of  course, 
been  given  to  the  oyster.  My  own  interest  in  the  form 
began  nearly  twenty  years  ago,  my  attention  being 
directed  to  it  by  the  late  Professor  W.  K.  Brooks,  the 
great  naturalist  and  great  teacher,  who  will  always  be 
remembered  in  Maryland  as  the  father  of  oyster  culture. 
My  first  efforts,  made  together  with  another  of  Dr. 
Brooks'  pupils,  were  directed  toward  a  solution  of  the 
problem  of  rearing  the  swimming  embryo  in  small  in- 
closures  to  the  stage  in  which  it  became  attached,  and  in 
spite  of  the  ingenuity  of  my  friend,  we  failed  dismally. 
For  that  reason  I  write  with  some  feeling  the  chapter 
on  rearing  the  oyster  from  the  egg.  I  may  perhaps  be 
allowed  to  state  that  from  many  wanderings  along  our 
coast,  I  have  been  enabled  to  gain  a  more  or  less  exten- 
sive personal  knowledge  of  oyster  culture  and  familiarity 
with  parts  of  the  oyster  field  described.  It  has  seemed 
to  me  that  the  person  who  eats  oysters — and  who  does 
not? — might  be  interested  not  merely  in  the  manner  of 
their  production  and  preparation  for  market,  some  de- 
scriptions of  which  have  appeared,  but  also  in  the  oyster 


Preface  v 

fields  on  our  shores,  no  connected  account  of  which  has 
been  published  so  far  as  I  know.  So  I  have  given  con- 
siderable space  to  the  history  and  present  condition  of 
our  oyster  territory,  and  have  ventured  some  suggestions 
concerning  its  future  development. 

The  chapters  on  the  life  history  of  the  soft  clam,  Mya, 
the  conditions  governing  its  growth,  and  on  clam  culture, 
constitute  an  account  of  my  own  work  begun  in  1898  at 
a  time  when  practically  nothing  was  known  concerning 
the  biology  of  the  form  except  through  analogy.  This 
work  was  suggested  by  Dr.  H.  C.  Bumpus,  now  Director 
of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History  of  New 
York,  for  the  United  States  Fish  Commission.  In 
Rhode  Island,  successful  experiments  on  the  growth  of 
Mya  have  also  been  carried  on  by  Professor  A.  D.  Mead. 
The  short  account  of  the  growth  of  the  hard  clam,  Venus, 
is  also  from  observations  that  I  published  in  1903.  Sev- 
eral facts  concerning  the  life  histories  and  growth  of  the 
soft  clam,  hard  clam,  and  scallop  have  been  supplied  by  my 
friend  and  former  pupil,  Mr.  D.  L.  Belding,  Biologist  of 
the  Massachusetts  Fish  and  Game  Commission,  who  has 
had  these  forms  continually  under  observation  since  1905, 
and  who  has  experimented  on  a  very  large  scale.  Some 
of  these  facts  Mr.  Belding  has  not  yet  published.  Some 
observations  by  Mr.  J.  R.  Stevenson,  another  of  my 
pupils,  have  been  quoted. 

The  attempt  has  been  made  to  present  the  great  possi- 
bilities of  clam  culture,  and  to  call  attention  to  legislative 
changes  that  are  necessary  to  inaugurate  it.  Biological 
knowledge  assuring  its  success  is  at  hand,  while  many 
thousands  of  acres  in  New  England  entirely  adapted  to  it 
now  lie  barren  and  unproductive.  It  would  be  fortunate 
if  by  some  means  there  might  be  extended  to  other  parts 


vi  Preface 

of  the  country,  where  these  forms  are  now  unknown  in 
the  markets,  a  knowledge  of  their  great  value  as  food 
mollusks,  for  our  entire  coast  line  is  capable  of  producing 
either  the  soft  or  the  hard  clam. 

Mr.  Roosevelt  uttered  a  great  truth  when  he  stated  that 
the  most  important  problem  confronting  the  nation  is  the 
conservation  of  its  natural  resources;  and  the  wonderful 
awakening  of  the  people  to  that  truth,  for  which  he  more 
than  any  other  person  is  responsible,  is  one  of  the  most 
important  events  that  has  occurred  in  America  during  a 
century  of  waste  and  extravagance.  An  attempt  has  here 
been  made  to  show  that  even  the  resources  of  the  "  great 
and  wide  sea,  wherein  are  things  creeping  innumerable," 
are  very  far  from  being  inexhaustible,  as  many  seem  to 
imagine;  but  also  that  some  of  its  useful  forms  may,  by 
directing  the  processes  of  nature  that  are  at  the  same  time 
productive  of  so  great  bounty  and  so  great  waste,  not 
only  be  conserved,  but  made  to  produce  even  on  waste 
places  greater  harvests  than  ever  before  existed. 

Acknowledgment  for  the  use  of  figures  is  gratefully 
made  to  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Fisheries,  to  various 
state  fish  commissions,  to  the  Johns  Hopkins  University 
Press,  and  to  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History 
of  New  York.  All  but  one  of  the  text  figures  are  my 
own,  and,  with  a  few  obvious  exceptions,  are  drawn  from 
my  own  preparations. 

WlLLIAMSTOWN,    MASS., 

January ',  1910. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   I 
SEA  FARMING 

PAGE 

A  national  inventory  of  resources — Waste  by  earlier  genera- 
tions— Extinction  of  undomesticated  food  organisms  in- 
evitable— Achievements  in  the  domestication  of  terrestrial 
animals  and  plants — Sea  farming — What  has  been  ac- 
complished—What may  be  hoped  for I 

CHAPTER   II 

NOTES  ON  THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOOD 
MOLLUSKS 

The  shell — Its  parts — Pearls — Attachment  of  the  oyster — The 
mantle — The  digestive  tract — The  palps  or  lips — Mouth, 
stomach,  and  intestine — The  vascular  system — The  heart 
— The  excretory  organs — Sexual  organs — Hermaphrodit- 
ism — The  nervous  system — The  foot — Creeping,  digging, 
and  spinning  the  byssus — Swimming  by  means  of  the  foot 
— Structure  of  the  gills  of  Mytilus,  Pecten,  and  Ostrea  .  II 

CHAPTER  III 
DEVELOPMENT 

Structure  of  the  male  and  female  cells — Preparation  of  the 
ovum  for  fertilization  —  Fertilization  —  Segmentation — 
Formation  of  organs — Attachment 39 


CHAPTER  IV 
CILIARY  MECHANISMS 

The  food  of  bivalves — The  normal  process  of  feeding — The 
gills  as  food  collectors — Transfer  of  food  to  the  mouth 
by  gills  and  palps — The  mud  problem  and  its  solution 
— Cilia  tracts  on  the  mantle  of  Venus  leading  backward 
in  the  mantle  chamber — How  mud  is  discharged  from 

vii 


viii  Contents 


the  mantle  chamber — Cilia  tracts  on  the  side  of  the 
visceral  mass — Mud  collected  by  the  gills — The  palps 
organs  for  determining  whether  collected  material  shall 
be  carried  to  the  mouth  or  away  from  it — Ciliation  of 
organs  of  the  oyster — Selection  or  rejection  of  material 
determined  by  its  volume — Experiments — Automatic  selec- 
tion of  food  by  the  gills  of  Pecten — Special  organs  for 
the  rejection  of  mud  in  Pholas 49 

CHAPTER  V 
OYSTER  CULTURE  IN  EUROPE  AND  JAPAN 

Ancient  shell  heaps — Oyster  culture  in  antiquity — European 
flat  and  Portuguese  oysters — Destruction  of  natural  oyster 
beds  in  Europe — Scientific  experiments  of  M.  de  Bon  and 
M.  Coste — Great  initial  success  of  oyster  culture  in 
France — Early  disaster  to  the  industry — Ignorance  of  the 
biological  factors  involved — Revival  of  the  industry — 
Spat  collectors — The  breeding  season — Caring  for  the 
growing  oysters — Oyster  culture  between  tide  lines- 
Oyster  parks  and  their  construction — Racks  for  the  young 
— The  "  greening "  of  oysters — Final  preparation  for 
market — Japanese  oysters — The  use  of  bamboo  collec- 
tors— Growth  of  the  young 68 


CHAPTER  VI 

CONDITIONS   GOVERNING  OYSTER  GROWTH 
—OYSTER  PLANTING  IN  AMERICA 

Why  European  methods  will  not  be  employed  in  America — 
How  American  is  different  from  European  oyster  cul- 
ture— Biological  conditions  governing  oyster  growth — 
Bottom  to  be  selected  for  oyster  culture — Food  require- 
ments— The  effect  of  a  variable  salinity — Oyster  planting 
— "  Seed  "  oysters — Time  required  for  growth — The 
amount  of  seed  to  be  planted — Method  of  planting  the 
seed — Gathering  the  seed — Natural  beds  as  sources  of 
seed — Former  use  of  Chesapeake  seed  in  the  North — 
Irregularity  of  the  set  in  northern  waters  ....  91 

CHAPTER  VII 
REARING  OYSTERS  FROM  THE  EGG 

A  method  of  artificial  fertilization  of  oyster  eggs — Wide- 
spread interest  in  the  discovery  of  Professor  Brooks — 
Impracticable  modifications  of  the  method  by  others — 


Contents  ix 


Origin  of  the  belief  that  artificial  fertilization  might 
simplify  oyster  culture — Persistence  of  this  hope  to  the 
present  time — Liberated  embryos  gathered  on  collectors 
in  France — Experiments  in  America — Oyster  and  clam 
culture  have  nothing  to  gain  from  artificial  fertilization 
of  the  egg 109 

CHAPTER  VIII 
OYSTER  CULTURE  IN  AMERICA 

True  oyster  culture  not  extensively  practised — Advantages 
from  the  capture  of  seed  on  collectors — Collectors  em- 
ployed in  America — When  collectors  or  "  cultch  "  should 
be  spread — Slime — Care  of  growing  oysters — Labor 
necessary  for  success — Varying  methods  in  different 
fields — Nature  of  the  labor  of  the  northern  culturist  .  118 

CHAPTER  IX 

IMPLEMENTS  AND  THEIR  USES— BOATS— 

THE  PREPARATION  OF  OYSTERS 

FOR  MARKET 

Tongs  and  their  uses— Nippers— Patent  tongs — The  use  of 
dredges — Opposition  to  the  use  of  the  dredge — Form  and 
sizes  of  dredges — Hand  and  steam  windlasses  for  draw- 
ing dredges — Boats — Tonging  boats — Schooner  rigged 
vessels — The  lugger — Steam  vessels — The  "  Early  Bird" 
— Increase  in  the  number  of  steam  vessels — A  demonstra- 
tion of  the  superiority  of  steam  power — Preparing  oysters 
for  market — Cleaning  and  culling — The  freshening  of 
oysters — Bad  features  of  the  practice — The  matter  of 
taste  and  the  flavor  of  oysters—"  Shucking  "—Washing 
the  "  meats  "—Containers,  tin  cans,  barrels,  pails,  bottles 
— Shipping — Steamed  oysters 129 


CHAPTER  X 

NATURAL  ENEMIES  OF  THE  AMERICAN 
OYSTER 

The  starfish  in  the  north  Atlantic— First  recognized  as  a 
dangerous  oyster  enemy  in  1882 — Structure — Its  migra- 
tions— Its  food — How  the  starfish  opens  an  oyster  or 
clam — Removal  of  starfish  from  oyster  beds  by  means  of 
tangles — The  oyster  drill — Formerly  not  numerous — The 
drumfish— Sheepshead— Rays  and  skates— Crabs— The 
oyster  crab — Mussels — The  boring  sponge — The  boring 
clam — Sea-weeds  and  hydroids — Oyster  diseases  .  .  .  147 


x  Contents 

CHAPTER  XI 
BIVALVES  IN  RELATION  TO  DISEASE 

PAGE 

Typhoid  fever — Sources  of  infection — Contamination  of 
water  over  oyster  or  clam  beds — How  bivalves  strain 
disease  organisms  from  large  quantities  of  sea  water — 
Need  of  caution  in  eating  uncooked  bivalves — Danger  in 
the  freshening  process — How  it  may  be  prevented — 
Safety  rests  largely  on  the  demands  of  the  consumer  .  166 

CHAPTER  XII 
THE  NORTHERN  OYSTER  FIELD— HISTORICAL 

Natural  oyster  beds  north  of  Cape  Cod — Kitchen  middens  in 
north  New  England — The  Damariscotta  shell  heap — His- 
torical records — Why  natural  oyster  beds  have  disap- 
peared— Early  extent  of  natural  beds  in  New  England 
and  New  York — Cause  of  the  depletion  of  the  natural 
beds — The  beginnings  of  oyster  culture  in  America — 
Early  laws  governing  the  oyster  industry — Lease  and 
sale  of  bottoms — The  fear  of  monopolies — The  futility 
of  the  close  season ".-'""'*•.  .  174 

CHAPTER  XIII 

PRESENT  CONDITIONS  IN  THE  NORTHERN 
FIELD 

American  and  European  oysters  compared — The  use  of 
southern  seed — Oyster  laws — The  old  method  of  local 
control — The  new  method — Surveys  of  barren  bottoms  as 
well  as  of  natural  beds — Definition  of  a  natural  bed — 
Incontestible  titles  and  the  settlement  of  disputes — Other 
features  of  present  Connecticut  oyster  laws — Direct 
revenue  plan  not  in  favor — Activities  on  Long  Island 
Sound — Deep  water  culture — Mergers — Monopoly — Work 
during  the  summer — Northern  markets 186 

CHAPTER  XIV 
THE  CHESAPEAKE 

Historical — Record  of  the  oyster  industry  fragmentary — 
Origin  of  the  present  packing  business  in  Maryland — In 
Virginia — Estimated  production  of  the  Chesapeake  in 
half  a  century — Belief  that  the  supply  was  inexhaustible 
— Special  Maryland  Oyster  Commission  of  1882 — Report 
of  Professor  Brooks — Destruction  of  the  natural  beds 
by  excessive  dredging — Record  of  the  decline  of  the  in- 


Contents  xi 


dustry— Production  in  Virginia  exceeds  that  of  Mary- 
land—The Chesapeake  oyster  in  politics— Laws  not  en- 
forced— Oyster  pirates  and  their  raids — Oyster  culture 
impossible— How  the  crews  of  the  pirate  vessels  were 
recruited— Their  treatment  by  dredging  captains— Present 
and  future  of  the  Chesapeake  industry — Ineffectual  polic- 
ing by  "  oyster  navies  " — No  surveys  of  barren  bottoms 
Natural  beds  still  the  chief  source  of  the  supply — Plant- 
ing on  the  increase — Features  of  Maryland's  oyster  laws 
of  1906— Survey  of  the  natural  beds  by  the  new  Oyster 
Commission — Criticism  of  the  new  law 206 

CHAPTER  XV 
THE  NORTH  CAROLINA  FIELD 

Physical  characters  of  the  region— Oyster  reefs— How  oysters 
form  islands — Why  natural  oyster  beds  do  not  appear 
between  tide  lines  in  the  northern  field  as  in  the 
Carolinas — Why,  in  North  Carolina,  natural  beds  seldom 
form  below  the  low  tide  line — Oyster  clusters — "  Rac- 
coon "  oysters  and  how  they  are  formed — Small  oysters 
from  clusters  available  for  seed — Formation  of  river 
tonging  beds — Possibilities  of  oyster  culture  in  Pamlico 
Sound—Extension  of  natural  beds— The  appearance  of 
the  Baltimore  dredgers — Destruction  of  the  natural  beds 
Dredging  by  non-residents  prohibited — Cull  laws  not  en- 
forced—The future  of  the  industry  in  North  Carolina  .  229 

CHAPTER  XVI 
THE  GULF  OF  MEXICO 

Florida — Natural  beds  between  and  below  tide  lines — Laws — 
Alabama — Mississippi — Rapid  development  of  the  in- 
dustry in  Louisiana — Subsidence  of  the  shore  line — Great 
area  available  for  oyster  culture — Nature  of  the  coast 
east  of  the  Mississippi  River — Chandeleur  Islands  and 
Sound — Rapid  growth  of  oyster  culture  west  of  the  delta 
— Silt  deposit — Experiments  showing  that  the  softest  of 
bottoms  may  be  reclaimed — Great  deposits  of  small  shells 
— Ideal  collectors — Rapid  rate  of  oyster  growth— Oyster 
enemies — Destructiveness  of  floods  from  the  Mississippi — 
Advantages  in  the  conditions  in  Louisiana — Wise  laws — 
Production  rapidly  increasing — Texas — Natural  beds — 
Prospect  for  the  future 251 

CHAPTER  XVII 
THE  PACIFIC  FIELD 

The  native  Pacific  oyster— Atlantic  animals  introduced  into 
the  Pacific— Planting  the  native  oyster  in  Washington— 


xii  Contents 


Depletion  of  the  natural  beds  in  Puget  Sound — Introduc- 
tion of  the  Atlantic  oyster  in  San  Francisco  and  Willapa 
bays — Failure  of  reproduction — Low  temperature — Ac- 
climatization— Stock  companies  for  rearing  oysters  in 
Washington 269 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE  SOFT  CLAM— DISTRIBUTION  AND 
CONDITIONS  CONTROLLING  IT 

Former  abundance  in  New  England — Present  scarcity — 
Vernacular  and  "  scientific "  names — Character  of  clam 
bottoms — Digging  clams — Action  of  disturbed  clams — 
Conditions  necessary  for  the  growth  of  Mya — Effect  of  a 
shifting  bottom — A  tenacious  soil  necessary — Clay,  a 
growth  of  algae  thatch — Water  currents  and  the  food 
supply — Effect  of  close  segregation — Good  effects  of 
digging — Great  variation  in  salinity  not  harmful — 
Enemies  few  .  .  .  . 276 


CHAPTER  XIX 
THE  LIFE  HISTORY  OF  THE  SOFT  CLAM 

The  breeding  season — Destruction  of  the  swimming  young — 
Settling  to  the  bottom — The  byssus — Attachment  and  its 
purposes — The  creeping  period  and  its  dangers — Destruc- 
tion by  small  starfish — Beginning  of  the  burrowing  habit 
— Byssus  attachment  in  the  burrow  and  its  purpose — 
Atrophy  of  the  byssus — Final  descent  into  the  ground  .  290 

CHAPTER  XX 

THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  SOFT  CLAM  AND 
SOME  NOTES  ON  CLAM  CULTURE 

First  experiments  on  the  growth  of  Mya — The  plan  followed 
— Determination  of  the  amount  of  growth — Specific 
example — Table  showing  growth  of  planted  clams — Ex- 
periments by  the  Massachusetts  Fish  and  Game  Commis- 
sion— Early  attempts  at  clam  culture — The  Bridgeport 
experiment — Towns  allowed  to  rent  flats — The  Essex 
experiment — Peculiarities  of  the  clam  set — Immense 
segregations  and  their  causes — Sources  of  seed  for  plant- 
ing— How  seed  clams  may  be  planted — Amount  of  seed 
to  be  used — Barren  flats  available  in  Massachusetts — 
Public  and  private  ownership  of  clam  shores — Present 
absurd  laws — Advantages  of  clam  culture  not  possessed 


Contents  xiii 


by  oyster  culture — Introduction  of  Mya  into  California 
and  Washington — Its  rapid  development — Native  clams 
of  the  Pacific  coast 298 

CHAPTER  XXI 
THE  HARD  CLAM 

Names — Methods  of  capture — Marketing — Decreases  in  num- 
ber— Development — First  experiments  on  growth — Creep- 
ing— Effect  of  sea-weed  over  beds — No  growth  in  New 
England  during  the  winter — Value  of  a  strong  current — 
Wide  variation  in  salinity  possible — Few  natural  enemies 
— Demand  for  the  "  little  neck " — Culture  methods  not 
encouraged — Monopoly  and  destruction  of  the  industry  by 
shore  towns  in  New  England — Need  of  legislation — Ob- 
taining seed — Planting  on  Long  Island — Possibilities  in 
hard  clam  culture 321 

CHAPTER  XXII 
THE  SCALLOPS 

Only  the  adductor  muscle  used  for  food — Freshening  or  bloat- 
ing by  marketmen — Names — Two  Atlantic  species  used 
for  food — Distribution — Eyes — Swimming  habits — The 
warm  water  scallop  apparently  does  not  migrate — Method 
of  capture — Decrease  in  number— Development — Swim- 
ming by  the  foot — Spinning  the  byssus — Bearing  of  byssus 
attachment  on  distribution — The  creeping  stage  in  bi- 
valves— Rate  of  growth  depends  on  food-bearing  currents 
— Growth  ceases  in  winter — Actual  rate  of  growth — 
Normal  length  of  life — Its  economic  bearing — Biological 
problem  involved — How  to  determine  whether  a  scallop 
has  spawned — Economic  waste  in  not  dredging  in- 
dividuals that  have  spawned — Legislation  needed — 
Enemies — Results  of  scallop  culture  doubtful — Waste  of 
food  in  America — Failure  to  utilize  marine  food  mol- 
lusks  and  fishes — The  inhabitants  of  the  sea  not  all  be- 
yond human  control 333 

INDEX 353 


LIST  OF  PLATES 


FACING 
PAGE 


ANATOMY  OF  THE  ROUND  CLAM  OR  "  LITTLE  NECK  "  .       .       .  12 

ANATOMY   OF   THE    OYSTER                         ' 24 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  AMERICAN   OYSTER    .       ...  44 
TILE  COLLECTORS  IN  PLACE  ON  A  TIDAL  FLAT  AT  AURAY,  FRANCE  82 
ARCACHON,  FRANCE.     OYSTER  PARKS  WITH  Low  CLAY  WALLS  82 
ARCACHON.     PARKS   WITH    SOMEWHAT   HIGHER   WALLS    CON- 
TAINING CASES  FOR  THE  GROWING  YOUNG 82 

NEWLY  ARRANGED  COLLECTORS  OF  BAMBOO  ON  A  TIDAL  FLAT 

IN  JAPAN 88 

OYSTER   PARK  OR   GROWING   GROUND  IN  JAPAN    ....  88 

OBJECTS  TO  WHICH  SMALL  OYSTERS  HAVE  ATTACHED  .  .  .  120 
AN  IRON  MAST  HOOP  FROM  CHESAPEAKE  BAY  COVERED  BY 

THOUSANDS   OF   OYSTERS  OF  VARIOUS   SIZES    ....  120 

A  FLEET  OF  GASOLINE  TONGING  BOATS  IN  HAMPTON  ROADS,  VA.  130 

TONGERS  AND  CULLERS  AT  WORK  ON  PAMLICO  SOUND,  N.  C.           .  130 

A   NORTH    CAROLINA    DREDGING   SCHOONER,    SHOWING   DREDGE 

AND  HAND  WINDLASS 134 

DRAWING  A  MORE  MODERN  DREDGE  BY  STEAM  POWER  ON  THE 

NEW  YORK  OYSTER  GROUNDS 134 

STEAM  DREDGING  VESSEL  ON  LONG  ISLAND  SOUND  ....  136 

STEAM  DREDGING  VESSEL  OWNED  AT  NEW  HAVEN  ....  136 

NEW  YORK  STEAM  DREDGING  VESSEL  TOWING  THE  DREDGES  .  136 
A  POWERFUL  ICE-BREAKING  STEAMER  OWNED  AT  NEW  HAVEN, 

CONN 140 

THE  LARGEST  OF  THE  NORTHERN  OYSTER  FLEET  ....  140 

OYSTER  CLUSTER  COVERED  WITH  MUSSELS 162 

THE  NATURE  OF  THE  CROWDING  IN  OYSTER  CLUSTERS  .  .  .  162 
LABORATORY  EMPLOYEES  TONGING  AND  CULLING  CLUSTERED 

OYSTERS  IN  LOUISIANA 232 

xv 


xvi  List  of  Plates 

FACING 
FACE 

NATURAL    GROWTH    OF    "  COON    OYSTER  "    CLUSTERS    BETWEEN 

TIDE  LINES  IN  SOUTH  CAROLINA 232 

SHELLS  OF  ARCA  WITH  YOUNG  OYSTERS  ATTACHED  .  .  .  262 
SINGLE  OYSTERS  ATTACHED  TO  SHELLS  OF  A  SMALL  CLAM  .  .  262 
HOLES  OF  LONG-NECK  CLAMS  VERY  THICKLY  SET  IN  A  BEACH  282 
LONG-NECK  CLAMS  DUG  FROM  BENEATH  ONE  SQUARE  FOOT  OF 

A  FLAT   .       .       .      '.    ".• .       .282 

INCREASE  IN  SIZE  IN  ONE  YEAR  OF  CLAM   ONE  INCH  LONG 

WHEN  PLANTED  .       .       /     .       . 304 

INCREASE  IN  VOLUME  IN  ONE  YEAR  OF  CLAMS  IN  AN  EXPERI- 
MENTAL BED  WITH  SLIGHT  CURRENT 304 

Box    SUSPENDED    FROM    A    RAFT    NEAR    A  CLAM    FLAT    FROM 

MAY  15  UNTIL  OCTOBER  15  OF  THE  SAME  YEAR  .       .       .312 
GROWTH  OF  MYA  IN  Two  YEARS  ON  i-ioo  OF  AN  ACRE  OF  A 
BARREN   FLAT 312 


Of    THE 

(  UNIVERSITY  j 


CHAPTER  I 
SEA  FARMING 

F  one  were  to  construct  a  classification  of  the 
units  of  society,  he  could  perhaps  most  con- 
veniently group  them  as  pessimists  and  opti- 
mists. It  is  difficult  to  determine  which  is 
the  larger  group.  One  is  apt  to  say  in  his  haste  that  all 
men  are  pessimists.  Whether  this  really  is  true  or  not, 
chronic  fault-finders  certainly  are  not  rare,  and  all  know 
where  to  look  for  the  glowing  face  of  the  optimist. 
Every  one  knows  the  cheerful  friend  who,  while  urging 
one  to  go  fishing  with  him,  would  turn  his  back  on  the 
black  cloud  rising  in  the  southwest  and  call  attention  to 
the  little  patch  of  blue  remaining  in  the  east  to  prove  the 
impossibility  of  rain.  On  large  matters  of  national 
interest,  as  well  as  in  small  affairs,  the  American  public 
has  had  a  long  training  in  optimism.  Popular  writers, 
and  orators  on  platform  and  stump,  have  always  taught 
us  that  ours  is  the  greatest  of  nations  in  achievement,  and 
that  our  natural  resources  are  limitless  and  inexhaustible. 
It  may  be  that  general  intelligence  is  sufficiently  ad- 
vanced to  warrant  the  introduction  of  a  third  group  into 
this  classification.  Whatever  name  may  be  given  to  the 
group,  it  includes  those  who,  instead  of  constructing  argu- 
ments to  substantiate  opinions,  are  interested  only  in  what 
is  true.  They  employ  the  simple  and  common  sense 
method  of  modern  science,  stripping  themselves  of 


2  Our  Food  Mollusks 

prejudice  and  desire,  and  attempt  to  see  things  only  as 
they  are. 

Assuming  this  reasonable  attitude  as  fully  as  possible, 
it  is  well  to  consider  on  its  merits  the  question  of  the 
future  sources  of  the  world's  daily  bread.  Since  Malthus, 
more  than  a  century  ago,  showed  that  population  tended 
to  outgrow  subsistence,  pessimists  have  declared  universal 
famine  to  be  near,  while  optimists  have  refused  to  con- 
sider the  matter  seriously,  or  believed  that  if  the  worst 
should  occur,  some  chemist  would  succeed  in  synthesiz- 
ing proteids  from  inorganic  matter,  or  that  something 
else  would  turn  up  to  relieve  the  situation.  While  there 
is  certainly  no  immediate  occasion  for  alarm  over  the 
matter,  the  recent  inauguration  of  an  attempt  to  make  a 
national  inventory  of  all  of  our  resources  is  a  triumph  of 
common  sense. 

Heretofore  the  young  continent  has  produced  a  vast 
amount  of  human  food  that  it  has  been  necessary  only  to 
gather,  while  other  natural  resources — metals,  gas,  oil, 
coal,  lumber,  and  fertile  soils — have  seemed  to  be  limitless 
in  quantity.  Viewing  the  present  conditions  as  they  are, 
without  unwarranted  encouragement  or  discouragement, 
it  is  very  clear  that  preceding  generations,  giving  no 
thought  to  those  who  were  to  follow  them,  destroyed  and 
wasted,  without  substantial  benefit  even  to  themselves, 
sources  of  natural  wealth  that,  carefully  conserved,  might 
have  provided  comfort  for  many  generations.  If  there  is 
any  excuse  in  the  fact  that  our  ancestors  believed  it  to  be 
impossible  to  destroy  our  natural  resources,  there  is  none 
for  those  of  the  present  generation  whose  greed  is  delib- 
erately and  mercilessly  cleaning  up  what  remains,  and 
leaving  a  far-reaching  inheritance  of  ruin.  Our  criminal 
waste  and  our  indifference  to  the  fate  of  future  genera- 


Sea  Farming  3 

tions,  have  been  said,  and  probably  with  truth,  to  be  with- 
out precedent  in  the  history  of  peoples. 

The  best  of  our  forests  is  gone,  and  their  actual  extent 
reduced  by  at  least  three  hundred  millions  of  acres.  In 
lumbering  and  manufacturing,  we  waste  from  one-half 
to  two-thirds  of  each  tree.  The  method  of  lumbering  is 
responsible  for  incalculably  destructive  fires  that  often  de- 
stroy even  the  soils  on  which  they  occur.  Nearly  all  of 
the  waters  of  the  deforested  areas  go  to  the  seas  in  dev- 
astating floods,  while  summer  brings  its  droughts.  In 
the  South  alone,  millions  of  acres  of  rich  agricultural 
lands  have  been  gullied  beyond  repair.  The  wonderful 
valleys  west  of  the  Cascades  in  Washington  and  Oregon, 
now  attracting  wide  attention  because  of  the  peculiar  fer- 
tility of  their  soils,  and  possessing  probably  more  than  a 
fourth  of  the  available  water-power  of  the  nation,  are  en- 
dangered by  the  ruthless  destruction  of  forests.  It  is 
estimated  that  a  billion  feet  of  natural  gas — an  ideal  fuel 
— is  every  day  allowed  to  escape  from  the  earth  unused, 
and  that  from  one  to  two  tons  of  coal  are  wasted  in 
mining  each  ton  that  is  marketed.  Worse  than  all  else, 
soils  are  being  robbed.  Agriculture  is  now  practically  im- 
possible in  New  England,  and  farm  values  in  the  agricul- 
tural state  of  Ohio  have  suffered  a  decrease  of  sixty 
millions  of  dollars  in  a  decade.  All  recall  the  wanton 
nature  of  the  extermination  of  the  buffalo  and  the 
passenger  pigeon.  Water- fowl  are  now  rarely  seen 
where,  thirty  years  ago,  migrating  flocks  stretched  from 
horizon  to  horizon.  The  wonderful  run  of  the  salmon 
in  the  rivers  of  the  Pacific  slope  has  until  recently  been 
believed  to  afford  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  valuable 
food.  Beside  being  put  to  this  use,  millions  of  pounds  of 
salmon  and  herring  have  each  year  for  a  quarter  of  a  cen- 


4  Our  Food  Mollusks 

tury  been  utilized  on  the  Pacific  coast  in  the  manufacture 
of  fertilizer.  Cod,  mackerel,  shad,  and  other  valuable 
food  fishes  of  the  Atlantic,  within  the  memory  of  men 
now  living,  were  many  times  as  abundant  as  now.  At 
the  present  rate  of  decrease,  the  lobster  must  soon  disap- 
pear from  our  eastern  coast.  Nearly  every  natural  oyster 
field  on  the  Atlantic  has  been  destroyed.  Most  of  the 
clam  flats  of  New  England,  once  immensely  productive, 
are  now  almost  barren. 

But  in  spite  of  these  depressing  facts,  there  are  many 
hopeful  conditions  to  which  attention  should  be  given. 
Our  natural  resources  may  be  separated  into  two  groups, 
namely  those  consisting  of  materials  accumulated  through 
eons  of  time,  .which  are  replaced  only  by  the  infinitely 
slow  processes  of  nature,  and  resources  that  may  be  made 
rapidly  to  perpetuate  themselves  under  human  direction 
and  control.  To  the  first  belong  ore  deposits,  petroleum, 
gas,  and  coal.  These,  once  consumed,  are  gone  forever. 
The  second  group  includes  organisms  useful  to  man. 
Obviously  the  resources  included  in  the  first  group  should 
be  used  judiciously  and  without  waste,  in  the  knowledge 
that  substitutes  for  them  will  one  day  be  required.  Those 
of  the  second  group  may  never  disappear. 

While  wanton  destruction  and  waste  are  always  deplor- 
able, it  must  be  admitted  that  even  with  the  greatest  care, 
animals  and  plants  useful  to  man  would,  if  allowed  to  re- 
main under  natural  conditions,  soon  become  too  few  in 
numbers  to  meet  his  requirements.  The  butchery  of  our 
buffalos  by  hide-hunters  and  European  "  sportsmen " 
naturally  excited  strong  disapproval,  but  it  hurried  by 
very  few  years  their  extinction,  that  was  inevitable  from 
the  occupation  of  their  ranges  by  stockmen  and  agricultur- 
ists. The  great  multitudes  of  pigeons  inhabiting  the 


Sea  Farming  5 

northern  states  east  of  the  Mississippi  half  a  century  ago, 
met  their  fate  largely  through  the  destruction  of  their 
nesting  and  feeding  places.  Fishes,  oysters,  clams,  and 
other  animals  propagating  in  a  natural  state,  have  rapidly 
decreased  when  used  for  food.  Even  the  most  prolific 
have  proved  to  be  anything  but  inexhaustible.  But  even 
if  these  forms  had  been  used  without  waste,  their  final 
failure  as  sources  of  food  would  have  been  merely  post- 
poned. This  inevitable  destruction  only  becomes  deplor- 
able when  it  fails  to  be  accompanied  by  an  effort  to  do- 
mesticate, or  in  adequate  measure  to  control  the  perpetua- 
tion of  the  vanishing  form;  for  such  effort  in  the  past  has 
in  nearly  all  cases  been  marvelously  successful.  Man's 
achievements  in  domestication  have  been  possible  largely 
from  the  fact  that  he  has  nearly  always  been  able  to 
overcome  in  great  measure  the  vast  wastefulness  of  na- 
ture. In  a  natural  state,  seed  is  produced  in  profusion, 
but  its  growth  is  left  largely  to  chance,  and  its  destruction 
is  enormous.  Usually  with  little  effort  on  man's  part, 
intervention  results  in  a  rapid  increase  in  the  number  of 
individuals. 

Whenever  terrestrial  animals  and  plants  have  been  do- 
mesticated, the  achievement  has  consisted  not  merely  in 
accelerating  the  rate  of  reproduction,  but  in  controlling 
nearly  every  condition  on  which  their  lives  depended,  with 
an  effect  so  far-reaching  that  most  of  them  bear  so  little 
resemblance  in  structure  and  habit  to  their  wild  ancestors 
that  the  relationship  would  hardly  be  suspected.  Indeed, 
the  original  forms  from  which  many  of  them  were  de- 
rived, have  been  lost  to  human  tradition  and  are  entirely 
unknown.  How  great  some  of  these  changes  are  is  il- 
lustrated in  the  many  known  descendants  of  a  wild 
mustard  plant.  Among  them  are  the  numerous  vari- 


6  Our  Food  Mollusks 

eties  of  cabbages,  cauliflowers,  brussels  sprouts,  kales,  and 
kohlrabis,  that  are  so  different  from  each  other  and  from 
their  common  parent,  in  the  character  of  stem,  root,  leaf, 
and  flower,  in  size,  and  in  color,  that  it  is  difficult  to  be- 
lieve what  is  known  to  be  true  concerning  their  relation- 
ships. Great  changes  equally  useful  to  man,  have  also 
been  made  in  animals  on  which  he  has  come  to  depend, 
numerous  examples  of  which  will  occur  to  any  one. 

But  these  great  results  have  been  worked  out  on  the 
land.  Is  it  possible  to  hope  that  the  waters  also  may  be 
made  productive  in  any  similar  manner?  The  available 
land  area  will  soon  be  occupied,  but  here  is  an  immense 
expanse  of  shallow  water  along  our  shores  that  has  al- 
ways yielded  a  large  amount  of  food.  Is  it  possible  that 
this  also  may  be  converted  into  fertile  and  productive 
gardens  and  pastures  ? 

Though  man  domesticated  food  organisms  long  before 
recorded  events  began,  as  some  prehistoric  remains  prove, 
he  has  not  yet  seriously  given  his  attention  to  the  possi- 
bilities of  sea  farming.  It  is  true  that  along  certain  lines 
immensely  important  results  have  been  obtained,  but  that 
it  would  be  possible  greatly  to  extend  them  is  not  to  be 
doubted.  The  whole  subject  is  one  that  has  been  in- 
sufficiently considered.  It  might  be  urged  with  some 
show  of  reason  that  as  yet  there  is  no  necessity  for  the 
development  of  sea  farming,  because  our  land  area  is  still 
sufficient  to  meet  all  requirements  of  food  production. 
But  within  the  next  decade  or  two  all  of  the  wheat  land 
and  probably  all  of  the  arable  soil  of  the  North  American 
continent,  not  covered  by  forests,  will  be  occupied,  and 
while  this  is  capable  of  supporting  a  population  very  much 
larger  than  the  present  one,  it  would  be  the  part  of  wis- 
dom now  to  turn  to  the  sea,  in  order  to  determine  to  what 


Sea  Farming  7 

extent  it  also  is  capable  of  producing  organisms  under  a 
system  of  artificial  culture. 

It  may  also  be  argued  that  man  is  unable  successfully  to 
give  intimate  attention  to  aquatic  or  even  to  semi- 
aquatic  forms.  It  might  be  asked,  for  example,  why 
frogs,  that  are  sold  in  great  numbers  in  some  markets, 
have  not  been  improved  by  domestication;  or  why  fishes 
reared  from  artificially  fertilized  eggs  have  not  been  so 
bred  that  it  would  be  possible  for  them  to  abandon  their 
natural  habits  of  feeding  and  migration,  to  mature  and 
reproduce  themselves  in  captivity.  In  the  first  case,  the 
answer  is  that  selective  breeding,  which  perhaps  would 
not  be  difficult,  has  not  been  attempted.  It  is  perhaps  not 
impossible  that  our  markets  may  some  day  display 
gigantic  frogs  that  will  require  water  only  to  drink.  As 
to  the  fishes,  the  only  cases  in  which  the  attempt  has  been 
made  to  modify  structure  and  habit,  have  not  shown  re- 
sults different  from  those  obtained  in  terrestrial  forms,  as 
is  proved  by  the  very  curious  modifications  exhibited  in 
the  numerous  varieties  of  Japanese  gold-fishes.  It  must 
be  admitted  that  the  domestication  of  aquatic  forms  will 
be  attended  by  many  difficulties  not  encountered  on  the 
land,  but  there  is  no  good  foundation  for  what  appears 
to  be  the  common  belief  that  an  attempt  to  domesticate 
them  may  not  be  worth  the  undertaking. 

It  is  possible  that  some  marine  animals,  on  account  of 
their  habits,  can  never  be  really  domesticated.  Such  are 
fishes  that  make  long  seasonal  migrations,  or  that,  as  the 
salmon,  make  one  migration  into  fresh  water  to  spawn 
and  perish,  at  a  definite  period  in  life.  But  even  in  these 
cases  the  human  agency  may  become  vastly  helpful  in  the 
matter  of  their  propagation.  At  various  points  along  the 
Atlantic  coast,  the  eggs  of  shad  are  hatched  in  the  sta- 


8  Our  Food  Mollusks 

tions  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Fisheries,  and  cared 
for  through  the  early  period  of  life,  during  which  de- 
struction is  greatest  in  a  state  of  nature.  The  losses 
under  this  care  are  few,  and  the  young  fishes,  now  much 
better  able  to  care  for  themselves,  are  liberated  to  pass  the 
remainder  of  their  lives  in  a  natural  state.  There  are 
good  reasons  for  the  belief  that  the  shad  would  have  be- 
come practically  extinct  years  ago,  if  this  method  of 
artificial  propagation  had  not  been  practised.  The  num- 
bers of  several  species  of  fishes  are  maintained  in  the 
same  manner. 

In  the  case  of  one  marine  form  not  included  in  the 
group  of  fishes,  very  remarkable  success  has  attended  the 
employment  of  culture  methods.  The  culture  of  the 
native  oyster  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  the  simple  beginnings 
of  which  date  back  only  half  a  century,  affords  the  one 
great  demonstration  that  we  at  present  possess  of  the  possi- 
bilities of  sea  farming;  and  the  extent  and  value  of  the  in- 
dustry depending  on  it  are  very  significant.  It  is  the  pur- 
pose of  the  following  chapters  to  set  forth  the  achieve- 
ment of  the  oyster  culturist,  and  to  show  that  other  food 
mollusks,  now  rapidly  disappearing,  may  also  be  made 
very  much  more  abundant  than  they  ever  have  been  under 
natural  conditions. 

And  why  should  this  work  not  be  extended?  To  be- 
gin, we  should  know  that  the  sea  contains  immense  quan- 
tities of  nutritious  and  palatable  food,  of  which  no  use 
is  made.  The  Agricultural  Department  is  searching  all 
the  corners  of  the  earth  for  useful  plants  with  a  view  to 
habituating  them  to  our  own  soils  and  climates.  Why 
should  the  effort  not  be  made  to  introduce  on  our  own 
shores  marine  food  organisms  from  other  seas  ?  Probably 
quite  by  accident,  our  eastern  long  neck  clam  was  in- 


Sea  Farming  9 

troduced  on  the  Pacific  coast,  where  it  has  now  spread 
over  large  areas.  Why  may  not  some  of  the  more 
valuable  of  the  bivalves  of  the  western  coast  be  reared 
artificially  in  the  colder  waters  of  the  Atlantic?  The 
Japanese  possess  a  larger  and  better  oyster  than  the  native 
form  of  the  Pacific,  found  in  Washington  and  California. 
It  is  perhaps  not  superior  to  our  eastern  oyster,  but  the 
latter  is  not  able  to  reproduce  in  the  cold  Pacific  waters, 
,in  which  possibly  the  Japanese  form  would  thrive.  The 
state  of  Louisiana  is  about  to  make  the  attempt  to  estab- 
lish the  hard  clam  or  "  little  neck,"  found  near  the  Chan- 
deleur  Islands,  on  its  coast  west  of  the  delta  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, where  shore  bottoms  are  now  entirely  barren,  but 
on  which  conditions  seem  to  be  favorable  for  the  ex- 
istence of  this  valuable  food  mollusk.  There  are  nearly 
everywhere  similar  opportunities  to  utilize  waste  and  bar- 
ren places  on  our  shores.  And  without  becoming  unduly 
optimistic  over  the  matter,  we  are  probably  warranted 
in  expecting  that,  when  the  experiments  are  made,  many 
forms  beside  the  cod,  the  shad  and  other  fishes,  the  oyster, 
and  the  clam,  will  prove  to  be  more  or  less  perfectly 
responsive  to  the  new  conditions  that  the  human  agency 
shall  determine. 

A  most  auspicious  beginning  has  been  made  of  what 
may  in  time  become  the  artificial  control  of  very  many 
useful  marine  organisms.  Why  should  the  sea  and  its  in- 
habitants be  regarded  as  essentially  untameable?  There 
is  something  about  the  vastness  of  its  resources  that  ap- 
peals strongly  to  the  imagination.  Who  is  able  to  stand 
unmoved  before  the  awful  demonstration  of  power  that 
the _ waves  make  on  a  shore?  We  possess  no  means  of 
measuring  the  force  of  the  tides.  Even  those  who  pro- 
fess to  be  shocked  at  the  thought  of  utilitarianism  in  con- 


io  Our  Food  Mollusks 

nection  with  nature's  grand  displays  of  force,  may  find 
poetry  in  the  thought  that,  by  methods,  some  of  which  are 
already  known,  much  of  this  vast  and  purposeless  waste 
of  energy  may  be  made  to  undergo  a  magical  transforma- 
tion into  comforts  that  would  lighten  the  heavy  load  of 
human  toil,  and  make  human  experiences  happier  and 
more  ennobling.  The  potential  fertility  of  the  sea,  also, 
is  sufficient,  when  use  shall  be  made  of  it,  largely  to 
supply  man's  greatest  need. 


CHAPTER  II 

NOTES  ON  THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOOD 
MOLLUSKS 

OME  time  before  the  publication  of  Darwin's 
"  Origin  of  Species  "  in  1859,  a  ^ew  natu- 
ralists had  come  to  believe  that  similarity  in 
structure  in  different  species  of  animals  or 
plants  could  be  explained  only  on  the  assumption  that 
these  species  were  more  closely  related  to  each  other  than 
to  other  species.  To  them  it  seemed  unlikely  that  the 
many  points  of  resemblance  in  structure  and  habit  to 
be  found  in  comparing  scores  of  varieties  or  species 
of  violets,  for  example,  could  mean  anything  but  a  rela- 
tionship between  them.  From  the  analogy  afforded  by 
different  breeds  of  domesticated  animals,  known  to  be 
derived  from  a  common  parent  form,  it  seemed  reason- 
able to  assume  that  several  kinds  of  thrushes,  or  of  crows, 
of  squirrels,  hares,  or  similar  groups  of  species  differing 
only  slightly  from  each  other  in  nature,  had  descended 
one  from  another  or  from  common  ancestors. 

But  this  view  was  then  founded  merely  on  analogy 
and  met  with  little  favor.  The  world  continued  to  hold 
tenaciously  to  the  still  less  reasonable  hypothesis  that  each 
species  of  animal  and  plant  had  originated  independently 
in  an  act  of  special  creation.  According  to  this  tradi- 
tional belief,  no  relationship  existed  between  different 
species.  The  Creator  of  the  animate  world  had  decided 

ii 


12  Our  Food  Mollusks 

upon  several  types  of  organisms,  and  each  new  creatio 
was  made  to  conform  more  or  less  closely  to  one  of  ther 
Having  become  a  religious  dogma,  this  idea  was  so  firm./ 
fixed  that  it  required  a  revolution  in  popular  thought  to 
destroy  it.     The  publication  of  Darwin's  first  great  bo~1' 
accomplished  this  end. 

The  "  Origin  of  Species  "  showed  how  natural  forces 
now  in  operation  might  produce  new  species  from  parent 
forms.  It  presumed  that  the  same  forces  had  been 
operating  on  organisms  in  the  same  way  since  the  dawn 
of  life.  According  to  this  view,  all  living  organisms  have 
a  real  relationship  to  each  other,  recent  or  remote.  As  a 
rule,  great  differences  in  structure  indicate  distant,  as 
great  similarities  indicate  close  relationships. 

On  account  of  fundamental  similarities  in  develop- 
ment, structure,  and  habit,  which  exist  among  oysters, 
clams,  scallops,  mussels,  and  other  members  of  the  lamelli- 
branch  family,  no  naturalist  now  doubts  that  they 
descended  from  some  common  ancestor,  which,  however, 
must  have  lived  in  the  very  remote  past,  as  man  meas- 
ures time.  What  this  ancestral  form  was,  is  not  posi- 
tively known;  but  naturalists  have  agreed  on  what  must 
have  been  the  general  characters  of  many  of  its  organs. 
Why  they  should  have  a  positive  belief  in  regard  to  a 
creature  that  no  one  ever  saw,  even  in  fossil  form,  is  a 
long  story;  but  the  reasons  for  it,  if  they  were  explained, 
would  probably  be  satisfactory  to  most  minds. 

Among  the  very  few  bivalves  here  considered,  it  is 
not  easy  to  determine  which,  in  its  structure,  conforms 
most  closely  to  the  hypothetical  ancestor.  It  is  not  the 
black  mussel,  with  its  aborted  foot  and  anterior  adductor 
muscle,  and  its  sexual  glands  in  the  mantle  folds.  It  is 
not  the  scallop,  in  which  much  of  the  body  is  modified  to 


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Anatomy  of  the  Food  Mollusks  13 

conform  to  the  swimming  habit.  Certainly  it  is  not  the 
degenerate  oyster  that  has  completely  lost  the  organ  of 
locomotion,  and  the  anterior  adductor  muscle.  Probably 
it  is  not  the  soft  clam,  for  in  it,  also,  the  ancient  foot  is 
greatly  reduced.  Of  the  short  list,  the  hard  clam,  Venus 
mercenaria,  probably  has  a  greater  number  of  organs  that 
are  most  like  those  of  the  ancestral  bivalve,  though  some, 
like  the  gills,  depart  much  farther  from  the  primitive  con- 
dition of  those  organs  than  do  those  of  the  mussel  and 
scallop.  But  because  Venus,  not  by  any  means  one  of  the 
more  primitive  of  living  bivalves,  is  somewhat  the  more 
simple  of  the  species  here  described,  it  may  illustrate  best 
some  of  the  anatomical  characters  common  to  them  all. 

The  Shell.  The  hard  protective  covering  of  Venus 
consists  of  right  and  left  parts  known  as  valves.  It  is 
composed  of  carbonate  of  lime,  which  is  deposited  in  a 
viscous  secretion  poured  out  by  the  fleshy  mantle  fold 
lining  its  inner  surfaces.  On  the  shore,  one  sometimes 
finds  valves  of  clams  or  other  bivalves,  recently  dead, 
that  are  united  on  the  upper  or  dorsal  side  by  a  piece  of 
stiff,  elastic  substance,  resembling  rubber.  This  is  known 
as  the  shell  ligament.  The  position  of  its  attachment  to 
the  shell  is  represented  in  Figure  i  (/). 

Just  within  the  ligament,  each  valve  bears  prominent 
ridges  or  teeth  that  fit  into  corresponding  depressions  in 
the  opposite  valve.  This  mechanism,  serving  to  hold  the 
two  parts  of  the  shell  in  their  proper  relative  positions,  is 
called  the  hinge.  It  may  be  noticed  that  the  shells  of 
dead  bivalves  are  always  open  at  the  under  or  ventral 
margin.  In  the  living  animal,  lying  quite  undisturbed 
in  the  water,  a  slight  gaping  of  the  valves  may  also  be 
observed;  but  when  the  animal  is  disturbed,  the  valves 


14  Our  Food  Mollusks 

close.  An  attempt  to  pry  them  open  will  show  that  they 
are  held  together  with  great  force.  The  closing  mecha- 
nism consists  of  two  cylindrical  bundles  of  muscle  fibers, 
known  as  the  anterior  and  posterior  adductors,  running 
directly  across  from  one  valve  to  the  other.  The  ends 
of  these  muscles,  severed  from  the  left  valve,  are  shown 
in  the  figure  (a  a  and  p  a). 

The    functional    relations    of    ligament,    hinge,    and 
muscle,  may  be  understood  by  referring  to  the  text  figure 

(Figure  2),  which  repre- 
sents a  transverse  section  of 
the  shell  in  the  region  of 
hinge  and  ligament.  The 
rubbery  ligament  (/)  occu- 
pies such  a  position  and  is  of 
such  a  width,  that  when  the 
adductors  (a  m)  contract, 
the  hinge  (h)  acts  as  a  ful- 
crum, and  the  ligament  is 
stretched.  On  the  relaxation 
of  the  muscles,  the  mechani- 
cal contraction  of  the  liga- 
ment, acting  on  the  hinge, 
causes  the  lower  edges  of 
the  shell  to  separate. 

Examining  the  outer  sur- 
face of  a  valve,  there  is  to  be  noticed,  far  dorsalward  and 
forward,  in  Venus,  a  rounded  prominence,  the  umbo,  so 
called  on  account  of  its  fancied  resemblance  to  the  boss  of 
a  shield.  Its  position  on  the  shell  varies  in  different 
bivalves,  and  in  some  it  is  very  inconspicuous  or  absent 
altogether. 

From  the  umbo  as  a  center,  concentric  lines  of  growth 


FIG.  2. — Transverse  section  of 
the  shell  of  Venus  to  show 
relations  of  ligament  (/), 
hinge  (/*),  and  adductor 
muscles  (a  m). 


Anatomy  of  the  Food  Mollusks  15 

spread  over  the  entire  outer  surface  (Figure  64).  Each 
represents  what  was,  at  one  time,  the  edge  of  the  shell. 
A  cross  section  of  a  tree  trunk  reveals  similar  concentric 
growth  lines.  Each  line  in  the  section  marks  the  cessa- 
tion of  growth  in  the  fall  and  its  resumption  in  the  spring, 
so  that  the  years  of  a  tree's  life  are  recorded  in  them. 
From  such  an  analogy  it  might  be  assumed  that  the 
growth  lines  on  a  bivalve  shell  indicate  its  age,  also ;  but 
the  analogy  is  misleading.  Most  shells,  like  that  of 
Venus,  possess  fine  and  closely  crowded,  as  well  as  con- 
spicuous lines,  all  irregularly  arranged.  While  they  rep- 
resent successive  deposits  of  lime,  many  are  formed  in  a 
summer,  and  no  idea  of  age  may  be  had  from  them.  Dif- 
ferences in  their  distinctness  and  size  are  probably  due  to 
the  irregular  action  of  weather,  tide,  temperature,  and  the 
abundance  or  scarcity  of  food. 

The  mantle  edge  secretes  a  thin,  dark  colored,  rubbery 
coat  that  is  applied  to  the  outer  surface  of  the  shell.  This 
probably  is  produced  to  prevent  the  dissolution  of  lime, 
especially  in  the  young.  In  some  bivalves,  this  cuticle, 
as  it  is  called,  is  so  thick  and  tough  that  it  performs  its 
function  perfectly  throughout  life;  but  in  most  cases  it 
wears  away,  especially  on  the  older  part  of  the  shell,  and 
the  lime  is  slowly  dissolved.  The  addition  of  new  shell 
to  the  inner  surface  may  keep  pace  with  this,  but  in  the 
case  of  clams  living  in  foul  mud,  in  which  humus  acids 
are  abundant,  the  shell  is  sometimes  perforated  and  the 
animal  dies.  Very  little  of  the  cuticle  is  to  be  found  on 
the  shells  of  adult  oysters,  clams,  or  scallops. 

Closely  connected  with  the  addition  of  new  layers  to  the 
inner  surface  of  the  shell,  is  the  formation  of  pearls. 
These  precious  structures  are  merely  shell  formations  un- 
attached to  the  valve.  Their  shape  has  much  to  do  with 


16  Our  Food  Mollusks 

their  value.  Their  hue  and  iridescence  also  are  im- 
portant. Most  of  the  pearls  of  commerce  come  from  the 
so-called  pearl-oyster  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  This  mollusk, 
however,  is  only  distantly  related  to  edible  oysters. 
Pearls  have  been  found  in  the  bodies  of  most  bivalves, 
and  those  from  several  species  are  valuable.  Fresh  water 
clams,  especially  in  the  streams  and  lakes  of  the  central 
states,  produce  pearls  of  great  beauty.  Every  one  has 
found  them  in  our  oysters.  These  are  usually  small, 
though  sometimes  very  symmetrical  in  outline,  but  are 
not  valuable,  as  they  are  not  iridescent. 

Pearls,  really  abnormal  shell  growths,  are  formed  by 
the  introduction  of  some  foreign  object  between  the 
mantle  and  the  shell.  This  body  becomes  a  nucleus  about 
which  the  sticky  secretion  of  the  mantle  accumulates. 
Just  as  in  the  case  of  the  shell  layers,  lime  is  deposited 
in  this  sticky  coating.  Successive  layers  are  added  and 
the  pearl  gradually  increases  in  size.  The  foreign  bodies 
acting  as  centers  about  which  the  pearly  layers  are  ac- 
cumulated, have  been  shown,  in  some  cases,  to  be  small 
parasitic  worms.  It  is  easy  to  determine  experimentally, 
however,  that  an  inert  body  like  a  grain  of  sand,  will  also 
become  coated  with  pearly  layers.  Professor  Brooks,  in 
his  book  on  the  oyster,  writes  of  the  miraculous  origin  of 
the  sacred  clam  shells  of  the  Chinese  Buddhists.  He 
says : — "  The  inside  of  the  shell  has  a  beautiful  pearl 
luster,  and  along  it  is  a  row  of  little  fat  images  of  Bud- 
dha, squatting  with  his  legs  crossed  under  him,  and  his 
elbows  on  his  knees :  they  are  formed  of  pearl  precisely 
like  that  which  lines  the  rest  of  the  shell,  a  little  raised 
above  its  surface,  and  outlined  in  faint  relief,  but  they 
are  part  of  the  shell,  with  no  break  or  joint.  In  the 
process  of  manufacturing  them,  the  shell  of  the  living 


Anatomy  of  the  Food  Mollusks  17 

animal  is  wedged  open,  and  thin  images,  punched  out  of  a 
sheet  of  bell-metal,  are  inserted.  The  animal  is  then  re- 
turned to  the  water,  and  is  left  there  until  enough  new 
shell  has  been  formed  to  cover  them  with  a  varnish  of 
pearl  thick  enough  to  cover  them,  and  to  hide  the  metal, 
while  permitting  the  raised  outline  to  be  seen." 

Pearl  growth  is  really  very  common.  Fresh  water 
clams,  of  which  there  are  scores  of  varieties,  exhibit  it 
with  great  frequency.  But  usually  it  will  be  found  that 
the  pearl  has  become  fastened  to  the  shell.  Even  when 
these  growths  are  large,  they  cannot  be  removed  and 
ground  into  a  symmetrical  form,  because  abrasion  of  the 
surface  destroys  their  luster.  It  is  only  the  large,  sym- 
metrical growths,  which  have  not  been  glued  to  the  shell 
during  their  formation,  that  have  great  commercial  value, 
and  these  are  relatively  very  rare. 

There  is  often  considerable  variation  in  the  shapes  of 
shells,  especially  in  oysters  and  long-neck  clams.  This  is 
often  due,  in  the  case  of  the  former,  to  the  close  crowding 
of  individuals,  and  in  the  latter,  to  pressure  against  ob- 
jects in  the  walls  of  the  burrow.  When  young  oysters 
crowd  each  other  closely,  after  their  attachment,  the  di- 
rect effect  is  that  the  shells  grow  narrow  and  become 
greatly  elongated.  If  a  clam  in  its  burrow  presses  against 
an  unyielding  obstruction,  the  growing  shell  will  be  dis- 
torted by  conforming  to  the  outline  of  the  object. 

Right  and  left  valves  are  normally  symmetrical  in  most 
bivalves,  but  in  the  oyster  there  is  a  great  inequality.  The 
animal  is  attached  by  the  left  valve,  which  is  very  much 
larger  than  the  right.  It  forms  the  stony  box  in  which 
the  soft  parts  of  the  body  lie,  and  the  right  valve  is  little 
more  than  a  lid  to  the  box.  In  the  embryo,  the  valves  are 
of  the  same  size,  and  are  perfectly  symmetrical.  This 


1 8  Our  Food  Mollusks 

was  undoubtedly  the  condition  of  the  distant  ancestors 
of  the  oysters,  which  were  unattached.  The  habit  of  at- 
tachment is  of  great  value,  for  oysters  are  permanently 
held  in  favorable  localities  above  the  soft  mud  of  the  bot- 
toms, which  might  otherwise  smother  them. 

The  primary  function  of  the  shell,  of  course,  is  protec- 
tion. But  in  spite  of  its  hardness  and  toughness,  it  some- 
times fails.  There  is  a  mighty  and  unceasing  struggle  in 
nature  in  which  every  organism  strives  to  obtain  necessary 
nourishment,  and  at  the  same  time  to  protect  itself  against 
its  enemies.  The  shells  of  bivalves  have  become  strong, 
but  at  the  same  time  their  enemies,  which  must  in  some 
way  obtain  food  or  perish,  have  developed  special  organs 
for  crushing  or  penetrating  them.  The  jaws  of  the  drum- 
fish  of  Atlantic  and  Gulf  waters,  for  example,  have  be- 
come so  powerful  that  they  are  able  to  crush  even  the 
strong  shell  of  an  oyster.  But  it  is  interesting  to  observe 
that  there  is  difficulty  in  doing  this;  for  if  the  task  were  an 
easy  one,  these  fishes  might  be  able  to  cause  the  extinction 
of  the  race  of  oysters.  Drumfish  are  able  to  dispose  of 
small  oysters  which  the  oyster  culturist  has  separated  and 
scattered  over  the  bottom  to  grow,  but  they  experience  so 
great  difficulty  with  oyster  clusters  on  the  natural  beds, 
that  their  mouths  are  often  badly  lacerated  in  their 
desperate  attempts  to  obtain  food  from  them.  The 
sheepsheads,  fish  with  jaws  armed  with  large,  hard 
teeth,  crush  the  relatively  thin  shells  of  young  oysters. 
Among  the  deadliest  enemies  of  bivalves  are  some  of 
their  own  distant  cousins,  snail-like  mollusks  which  pos- 
sess, in  the  end  of  a  proboscis,  a  rasping  or  boring  organ 
which  slowly  cuts  through  the  hardest  shell,  and  allows 
the  creature  to  feed  on  the  pulpy  tissues  within. 

There  is  at  least  one  phase  of  what  is  called  the  struggle 


Anatomy  of  the  Food  Mollusks  19 

for  existence  among  organisms  that  popularly  is  very 
little  appreciated.  It  is  that  the  battle,  which  never  ceases, 
is,  in  almost  all  cases,  nicely  drawn — so  delicately  bal- 
anced through  long  periods  of  time,  that  any  slight  ad- 
vantage on  one  side  or  the  other  may  result  in  the  more 
or  less  complete  extinction  of  one,  or  even  of  several 
interdependent  species.  At  one  time  newspaper  reports 
informed  us  that  ordnance  and  projectiles  had  become  so 
perfected  that  the  armor  of  war  vessels  afforded  little 
real  protection.  Later  it  was  stated  that  armor-plates  had 
been  made  so  hard  and  tough  that  they  could  be  pene- 
trated or  broken  only  with  great  difficulty.  Yet  improve- 
ments in  both  go  on,  and  the  layman  understands  that 
there  is  a  nicely  balanced  contest  for  supremacy  between 
them.  Everywhere  in  nature,  also,  weapons  of  defense 
and  offense  are  slowly  being  perfected,  but  in  the  test  of 
actual  warfare.  A  harder  armor  in  the  oyster  and  other 
mollusks  might  possibly  deprive  drunifish  and  certain 
marine  snails  of  so  much  food  that  their  ranks  would  at 
least  be  reduced;  and  stronger  and  harder  jaws  in  the 
drumfish  might  result  in  the  annihilation  of  oysters  liv- 
ing in  the  warmer  waters  of  our  coast.  This  balance  in 
the  struggle  among  organisms  sometimes  is  upset,  and 
fossil  remains  show  that,  as  a  consequence,  many  great 
races,  both  of  animals  and  plants,  have  suddenly  declined, 
and  then  completely  disappeared  from  the  earth. 

The  Mantle.  This  structure  has  been  referred  to  as  a 
flap  or  fold  of  tissue  that  grows  out  from  each  side  of  the 
body,  expanding  so  as  to  line  the  inner  surface  of  the 
shell.  Figure  i  shows  the  edge  of  the  mantle  lying 
parallel  to  the  margin  of  the  shell ;  but  a  much  better  idea 
of  it  is  given  by  Figure  3,  which  represents  the  body  of 


2O  Our  Food  Mollusks 

the  oyster  lying  in  its  left  valve.  Here,  as  in  many  bi- 
valves, the  margin  is  provided  with  projections  or  ten- 
tacles, capable  of  some  extension,  and  acting  as  sensitive 
touch  organs.  Certain  parts  of  this  edge  are  sensitive  to 
changes  in  the  intensity  of  light,  and  in  the  scallop  there 
are  developed  eyes  so  perfect  in  function  that  moving  ob- 
jects are  seen  at  a  distance  of  several  yards.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  this  is  the  only  part  of  the  body  where  visual 
organs  would  be  of  any  use. 

In  the  two  forms  here  illustrated,  the  mantle  folds  be- 
low are  separate  from  each  other.  In  some  bivalves,  the 
soft  clam  for  example,  there  is  an  extensive  fusion  of  the 
edges,  so  that  the  mantle  chamber  becomes  an  enclosed 
space. 

Venus  is  a  form  that  spends  most  of  its  time  burrowed 
in  the  bottom  just  deep  enough  to  cover  the  shell.  As  in 
all  other  burrowing  lamellibranchs,  two  tubes,  the 
siphons  (Figure  i),  grow  out  from  the  mantle  posteri- 
orly, their  purpose  being  to  reach  up  to  the  water. 
Through  the  lower  one  a  stream,  bringing  food  and 
oxygen,  enters  the  branchial  or  mantle  chamber.  After 
passing  through  the  gills,  the  water  is  discharged  through 
the  upper  tube.  These  siphon  tubes  are  very  long  in  the 
soft  clam,  which  burrows  many  inches  into  the  bottom. 

In  addition  to  these  functions,  the  mantle  of  forms 
that  possess  a  large,  distensible  foot,  serves  as  a  blood 
reservoir,  and  thus  probably  functions  as  the  chief  organ 
of  respiration;  for  the  blood  here  is  separated  from  the 
water  only  by  the  very  thin  mantle  walls. 

The  Digestive  Tract.  Referring  again  to  the  figure 
illustrating  the  hard  or  round  clam,  it  will  be  observed 
that  the  mantle  fold,  the  two  gill  folds  that  hang  down  on 


Anatomy  of  the  Food  Mollusks  21 

the  sides  of  the  body,  and  the  body  wall  itself,  have  been 
removed  so  as  to  expose  the  digestive  tract  and  other  in- 
ternal organs.  In  most  animals  that  possess  a  tubular 
digestive  tract,  the  mouth  is  to  be  found  at  the  forward 
or  anterior  end  of  the  body,  and  the  rule  holds  in  this  case. 
Usually,  also,  this  opening  into  the  digestive  tract  is 
situated  in  a  modified  part  of  the  body  that  may  be  called 
a  head.  This  was  probably  true  of  the  very  early  an- 
cestors of  the  bivalves,  but  as  the  result  of  the  develop- 
ment of  a  shell  completely  covering  the  body,  the  head  of 
all  living  bivalves  has  disappeared  as  a  distinctly  modi- 
fied region.  For  this  reason  they  are  sometimes  called 
Acephala. 

The  mouth  is  not  shown  in  either  of  the  illustrations, 
but  its  position  in  the  oyster  is  indicated.  The  opening  is 
hidden  by  a  pair  of  huge  folds  or  lips,  one  placed  in  front 
of,  and  the  other  behind  it.  These  labial  palps  extend, 
right  and  left,  far  out  from  the  mouth,  and  are  shown  in 
both  figures.  In  Figure  3,  the  front  or  anterior  palp  on 
the  right  side  has  been  partially  removed,  and  the  inner 
surface  (that  nearest  the  mouth)  of  the  inner  palp  is 
exposed.  The  organs  are  so  situated  that  they  may  come 
in  contact  with  the  anterior  margins  of  the  gills.  The 
latter  are  collectors  of  the  microscopic  food,  which  they 
pass  forward,  by  ciliary  action — cilia  being  minute  hairs 
that  cover  various  surfaces  and  have  a  rapid  lashing 
movement — to  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  palps.  Over 
these,  in  turn,  it  may  continue  forward  to  the  mouth. 
As  will  be  shown  later,  when  material  is  too  abundant  on 
the  palps,  it  is  not  directed  to  the  mouth,  but  to  tracts 
that  carry  it  out  of  the  body. 

The  mouth,  having  the  form  of  a  funnel,  leads  directly 
into  the  oesophagus.  This  tube  may  be  traced  backward 


22  Our  Food  Mollusks 

to  its  opening  into  the  stomach.  As  represented  in  the 
figure,  the  latter  appears  as  a  simple  dilation  of  the  di- 
gestive tube.  Surrounding  it  on  all  sides,  are  the  digestive 
glands,  which  pour  their  secretion  into  it  through  short 
but  wide  ducts.  The  digestive  glands  constitute  what 
is  commonly  called  the  liver  in  anatomical  descriptions  of 
many  invertebrate  animals;  but  it  is  not  similar  to  the 
liver  of  vertebrates,  either  in  structure  or  function.  Its 
secretion  has  the  power  of  rendering  fluid  and  changing 
chemically  the  digestible  parts  of  the  food.  The  gland 
is  always  of  a  dark  color,  that  varies  somewhat  in  dif- 
ferent bivalves,  and  every  one  has  noticed  it  in  the  rup- 
tured bodies  of  oysters  and  clams. 

The  intestine  arises  from  the  posterior  end  of  the 
stomach.  Its  course  is  downward  and  backward,  and 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  body  it  bends  in  a  way  character- 
istically different  in  different  bivalves,  before  finally  as- 
cending to  the  region  in  front  of  the  heart.  Coursing 
straight  backward  on  the  dorsal  side  of  the  body,  it  passes 
directly  through  the  heart  in  most  bivalves,  and  then 
over  the  posterior  adductor  muscle  where  it  ends,  the  anal 
opening  of  the  tube  being  so  situated  that  the  strong 
current  of  water  leaving  the  body  immediately  carries 
away  the  fecal  matter.  The  parts  of  the  digestive  tract 
in  other  bivalves  have  much  the  same  arrangement. 

The  Vascular  System.  It  rarely  happens  that  the 
blood  of  invertebrate  animals  is  colored,  though  there 
are  one  or  two  exceptions  to  it  even  in  the  bivalve  group. 
In  our  edible  mollusks,  it  is  a  nearly  colorless  fluid,  cir- 
culating through  the  body  along  very  definite  paths.  As 
in  all  other  cases,  it  carries  liquid  food  obtained  from  the 
walls  of  the  digestive  tract,  and  oxygen  received  in  the 
gills  and  mantle,  to  all  the  living  tissues  of  the  body.  At 


Anatomy  of  the  Food  Mollusks  23 

the  same  time  it  gathers  up  waste  material  resulting  from 
muscular  activities,  and  as  it  flows  through  the  walls  of 
the  excretory  organs,  or  kidneys,  certain  cells  of  the 
latter  have  the  power  of  removing  these  substances. 

The  heart  is  situated  on  the  dorsal  side  of  the  body 
under  the  hinge  of  the  shell,  in  Venus.  By  opening  the 
delicate  wall  of  the  chamber  in  which  it  lies,  it  is  seen  to 
be  made  up  of  three  parts.  On  the  mid-line  of  the  back, 
is  a  large  sac,  with  filmy  muscular  walls,  which  is  called 
the  ventricle.  It  is  by  the  contraction  of  these  walls  that 
blood  is  forced  to  various  parts  of  the  body  through  two 
arteries,  one  running  forward,  and  the  other  backward. 
Joining  the  ventricle  on  either  side  are  two  auricles,  sacs 
even  more  filmy  and  delicate.  Their  office  is  to  pump  into 
the  ventricle  blood  which  they  receive  from  the  gills. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  intestine  courses  through  the 
ventricle  from  before  backward.  This  is  true  of  the 
clams  and  of  most  other  bivalves.  But  in  the  oyster  and 
scallop,  the  heart  has  been  moved  to  a  position  below  the 
intestine.  The  oyster's  heart  may  very  easily  be  found  by 
picking  away  the  thin  wall  just  in  front  of  the  large  ad- 
ductor muscle  so  as  to  expose  it  as  it  lies  in  its  chamber 
(Figure  3).  It  is  the  common  belief  among  oystermen 
that  the  adductor  (pa)  itself  is  the  heart,  and  that  when 
it  is  cut,  the  animal  is  at  once  killed.  The  fact  is  that  if 
one  valve  of  the  shell  is  very  carefully  removed,  and  the 
animal  is  placed  in  a  favorable  current  of  water,  it  will 
continue  to  live  for  days. 

The  Excretory  System.  The  organs  for  removing 
waste  matters  formed  as  a  result  of  muscular  and  other 
activities  are  usually  difficult  to  observe.  In  the  simplest 
cases  among  our  edible  mollusks,  they  are  dark  colored 
tubes,  one  on  each  side  of  the  mid-line  of  the  body,  open- 


24  Our  Food  Mollusks 

ing  by  one  end  into  the  chamber  in  which  the  heart  lies, 
and  by  the  other  to  the  exterior  of  the  body  near  the 
base  of  the  gills.  Their  position  is  shown  in  Figure  i,  n. 
Waste  matter  is  extracted  from  the  blood  as  it  flows 
through  the  walls  of  these  kidneys,  and  is  discharged  to 
the  exterior  through  the  outer  opening  of  the  tube. 

These  nephridia,  as  they  are  technically  called,  may  be 
seen  directly  exposed  as  conspicuous  swellings  on  the 
under  side  of  the  large  adductor  muscle  of  the  scallop, 
but  in  the  other  forms  their  examination  is  difficult. 

The  Sexual  Organs.  As  a  rule,  our  edible  mollusks 
are  of  separate  sexes,  though  there  are  no  secondary 
sexual  characters  that  will  enable  one  to  distinguish 
male  from  female.  The  small  warm  water  scallop  ( Pec- 
ten  irradians),  found  from  Cape  Cod  to  Texas,  is  her- 
maphroditic, that  is,  possesses  both  male  and  female 
sexual  glands.  Hermaphroditism  is  a  very  common 
condition  among  lower  animals  and  among  plants,  but 
where  it  occurs,  it  usually  happens  that  the  two  kinds  of 
sexual  cells  come  to  maturity  at  different  times,  in  order 
to  prevent  self-fertilization.  The  breeding  together  even 
of  nearly  related  animals,  usually  tends  to  produce  weak 
offspring.  The  sexes  are  separate  in  the  northern  or 
giant  scallop,  and  in  Venus  and  Mya.  This  is  also  true 
of  the  oyster,  while  its  near  relative,  the  European  flat 
oyster,  is  hermaphroditic. 

Because  the  losses  among  young  bivalves  are  so  enor- 
mous, immense  numbers  of  eggs  are  produced.  Fifty 
or  sixty  millions  would  be  a  conservative  estimate  of 
the  actual  number  discharged  by  a  large  female  oyster 
during  a  single  breeding  season.  Though  the  eggs  are 
minute,  they  are  large  enough  to  be  distinguished  by  the 
unaided  eye.  The  sexual  glands  constitute  the  greater 


ffi  rt 


o  o 


Anatomy"  of  the  Food  Mollusks  25 

part  of  the  pulpy  body,  being  packed  around  the  diges- 
tive tract,  extending  down  into  the  base  of  the  foot,  in 
the  quahaug,  and  backward  in  the  oyster  and  scallop  so 
as  nearly  to  surround  the  adductor  muscle.  The  ducts 
through  which  the  sexual  cells  are  discharged,  open,  one 
on  each  side  of  the  body,  near  the  bases  of  the  gills, 
though  in  the  scallop  and  some  other  lamellibranchs, 
the  opening  is  into  the  tube  of  the  nephridium. 

The  breeding  season  comes  in  the  late  spring  and  early 
summer.  All  through  the  winter  the  body  is  swelling  with 
the  accumulating  sexual  cells,  and  it  is  then,  of  course, 
more  valuable  as  a  food.  For  several  weeks  the  sexual 
products  are  gradually  discharged.  By  the  middle  of 
the  summer  the  body  has  become  comparatively  thin  and 
watery,  especially  in  the  soft  clams,  and  remains  so  until 
fall  or  early  winter.  Oysters,  and  probably  clams  also, 
living  in  the  warm  waters  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  continue 
to  spawn  through  the  summer,  and  the  former,  in  these 
localities,  produce  a  few  eggs  during  every  month  of 
the  year. 

It  is  often  asked  why  oysters  are  not  generally  mar- 
keted and  eaten  during  the  summer  months,  but  the 
reason  is  not  that  oysters  are  then  somewhat  less  full 
and  nutritious,  although  that  happens  to  be  the  case. 
Reason  plays  no  part  in  determining  many  human  habits 
and  customs.  The  answer  is  simply  that  it  is  the  custom 
to  eat  oysters  in  winter  and  not  in  summer.  It  is  the 
custom  south  of  Long  Island  Sound  to  eat  "  little  necks  " 
— small,  hard,  or  round  clams — during  the  summer,  and 
to  refrain  from  eating  long  neck  clams.  Just  as  it  is  the 
custom,  across  the  sound  in  Rhode  Island,  and  in  other 
New  England  states,  to  use  the  long  neck  clams  during 
the  summer  in  the  famous  clam-bake.  The  truth  is  that 


26  Our  Food  Mollusks 

none  of  the  bivalves  are  quite  so  good  for  food  from 
July  to  September;  but  the  critical  insight  of  the  person 
who  declares  an  oyster  stew  or  a  clam-bake  in  August 
to  be  failures  from  a  gastronomical  point  of  view,  is 
very  much  to  be  questioned.  There  is  no  very  good 
reason,  except  the  difficulty  of  transporting  and  keeping 
long  neck  clams,  why  all  of  our  food  mollusks  should 
not  be  marketed  during  the  summer. 

The  Nervous  System.  In  a  great  many  inverte- 
brates, the  central  nervous  system  possesses  one  chief 
ganglion,  or  pair  of  ganglia,  situated  in  the  anterior  part 
of  the  body.  But  in  the  bivalves  there  are  three  pairs 
of  large  ganglia:  one,  the  pair  of  cerebrals,  in  the  region 
of  the  mouth;  a  second,  the  pedals,  in  the  base  of  the 
foot;  and  a  third,  the  viscerals,  close  against  the  under 
side  of  the  posterior  adductor  muscle. 

The  ganglia  of  the  cerebral  pair  are  often  separated, 
being  placed  on  the  right  and  left  sides  of  the  mouth. 
These  are  connected  by  a  strand  or  commissure  of  nerve 
fibers  crossing  in  front  of  the  mouth.  The  two  pedal 
ganglia,  connected  with  the  cerebrals  by  a  pair  of  com- 
missures, are  partially  fused  together.  They  supply  the 
muscles  of  the  foot  with  nerves.  The  viscerals  are  the 
largest,  and  are  fused  together  into  a  single  ganglion 
from  which  nerves  are  given  off  to  the  gills  and  mantle. 
A  pair  of  commissures  also  unites  visceral  and  cerebral 
ganglia. 

Structurally  this  nervous  system  seems  to  be  simple, 
when  compared  with  that  of  higher  animals,  and  one  is 
apt  to  lose  sight  of  the  very  complex  functions  that  it 
really  performs.  The  responses  of  the  attached  and 
greatly  degenerated  oyster  seem  to  be  few  and  simple. 
Superficially  regarded,  its  functions,  except  those  per- 


Anatomy  of  the  Food  Mollusks  27 

formed  automatically  by  cilia,  over  which  the  nervous 
system  has  no  control,  are  almost  limited  to  opening  and 
closing  the  shell.  It  will  be  shown,  however,  that  even  in 
this  degenerated  form,  many  wonderful  responses  of  the 
nervous  system  to  various  stimuli  occur,  by  means  of 
which  this  automatic  ciliary  mechanism  is  rendered  ef- 
fective in  inducing  activities  that  result  in  the  acceptance 
of  microscopic  food  particles  from  the  water,  and  the 
rejection  of  useless  material. 

The  Foot.  This  organ,  which  is  characteristic  of  the 
Mollusca,  is  simply  a  muscular  thickening  of  the  under 
or  ventral  wall  of  the  body.  It  varies  greatly  in  size, 
shape,  and  position  in  various  bivalves,  but  the  chief 
features  of  its  primitive  form  are  probably  represented 
in  Venus.  Here  the  entire  ventral  wall  is  thickened, 
forming  an  organ  having  some  resemblance  to  a  plow- 
share, the  point  projecting  forward.  Though  the  adult 
hard  clam,  and  many  others  having  a  similar  foot,  seem 
more  or  less  completely  to  have  abandoned  the  habit  of 
creeping,  a  few  adult  bivalves  possessing  a  locomotor 
organ  of  the  same  general  character  use  it  for  that  pur- 
pose, sometimes  covering  considerable  distances.  The 
very  young  of  the  long  neck  clam,  mussel,  and  scallop 
possess  a  foot  much  like  that  of  the  adult  Venus,  and  all 
are  active  creepers.  Later  in  life  the  organ  becomes 
relatively  much  reduced  in  size  and  modified  in  form,  and 
in  each  the  creeping  habit  is  gradually  abandoned.  Be- 
cause of  the  early  form  and  function  of  the  foot  in  these 
species — and  the  same  will  probably  be  found  to  be  true 
of  many  other  bivalves — it  may  be  assumed  that  the 
ancestral  organ  was  large,  covering  the  entire  ventral  side 
of  the  body  and  projecting  far  forward,  and  that  its 
primary  function  was  that  of  creeping. 


28  Our  Food  Mollusks 

The  descendants  of  these  ancient  forms,  adapting 
themselves  to  various  new  modes  of  living,  found  new 
uses  for  the  foot  which  gradually  became  modified  to 
perform  these  functions  more  perfectly.  Burrowing  was 
one  of  these  habits.  It  is  well  demonstrated  by  the 
young  of  the  long  neck  and  little  neck  clams,  that  thrust 
and  worm  the  sharpened  anterior  end  of  the  foot  into  the 
bottom,  then  expand  it  so  that  it  acts  as  an  anchor. 
Special  muscles  (shown  in  the  figure  of  Venus)  extend- 
ing from  the  base  of  the  organ  to  an  attachment  on  the 
shell,  then  contract  and  draw  the  body  down  into  the 
bottom.  This  is  repeated  until  the  desired  depth  is 
reached. 

In  the  black  mussel  and  the  young  of  the  shallow 
water  scallop  of  the  Atlantic,  the  foot  performs  a  very 
special  function,  that  of  shaping  and  attaching  the  an- 
chor threads  of  the  byssus.  The  byssus  gland  is  an 
organ  developed  in  the  ventral  tissues  of  the  foot,  near 
its  posterior  margin.  It  produces  a  viscous  secretion 
that  hardens  in  coming  in  contact  with  water,  forming 
threads  of  great  strength.  It  is  also  present  and  func- 
tional in  young  little  neck  and  long  neck  clams. 

In  the  smaller  scallop  and  black  mussel,  there  is  a 
groove  on  the  under  side  of  the  foot,  extending  from  the 
opening  of  the  byssus  gland  to  the  end  of  the  foot,  where 
it  expands  into  a  diamond-shaped  cavity.  This  cavity 
remains  open  below,  while  the  groove  is  temporarily 
converted  into  a  closed  tube  by  the  folding  together  of 
its  edges.  The  foot  is  stretched  out  from  the  body,  the 
end  placed  against  some  foreign  object,  and  the  fluid 
is  poured  out  through  the  tube.  When  this  is  opened, 
water  comes  in  contact  with  the  secretion,  which  instantly 
hardens  into  a  thread,  and  the  foot  is  withdrawn  to  be 


Anatomy  of  the  Food  Mollusks  29 

extended  in  another  direction.  The  process  is  repeated 
until  several  threads  are  formed.  Though  the  mussel 
remains  attached  during  its  life,  it  is  possible  for  it  to 
cast  off  the  byssus  at  its  base  and  form  a  new  one.  The 
scallop  has  the  same  habit,  but  attaches  less  frequently 
after  attaining  the  adult  condition.  In  the  clams  the 
byssus  disappears  early  in  life. 

Still  another  use  is  made  of  the  foot  in  a  few  cases. 
The  large  sea-clam  (Mactra)  of  the  north  Atlantic 
coast,  is  able  to  leap  a  distance  of  several  inches,  when 
out  of  the  water,  by  a  quick  movement  of  the  organ, 
and  it  is  not  difficult  to  see  how  such  a  habit  may,  at 
times,  be  useful  to  it.  There  are  some  cases  in  which 
bivalves  are  able  even  to  swim  short  distances  by  a  rapid 
paddle-like  movement  of  the  foot. 

Finally  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  in  the  oyster,  the  foot, 
although  present  in  the  very  young,  early  begins  to  dis- 
appear, and  soon  completely  vanishes.  This  is  presum- 
ably the  result  of  the  mode  of  life  inaugurated  by  the 
attachment  of  the  shell  to  some  object  on  the  bottom,  for 
the  foot  is  then  of  no  use. 

The  Gills  or  Branchiae.  The  gills  are  the  most 
complicated  organs  of  the  lamellibranch  body.  They, 
like  the  foot,  have  been  greatly  changed  from  the  primi- 
tive condition  to  conform  to  various  modes  of  life  which 
characterize  different  species.  So  many  of  the  activities 
of  bivalves  depend  on  them,  and  so  much  also  concern- 
ing their  functions  is  of  importance  to  those  who  use 
oysters  and  clams  for  food,  that  they  should  be  thor- 
oughly understood.  No  one,  for  example,  who  knows 
how  these  organs  continually  strain  from  the  water  the 
minutest  solid  particles,  and  hold  them  tenaciously,  can 
have  any  doubt  about  their  power  to  collect  the  organ- 


30  Our  Food  Mollusks 

isms  of  typhoid  fever  and  other  germ  diseases,  especially 
intestinal  diseases,  from  infected  waters. 

The  organs  are  exposed  when  the  mantle  flaps  are 
lifted,  and  there  are  seen  to  be  two  of  them  on  each  side 
of  the  body,  one  lying  nearly  over  the  other.  In  the 
figure  of  Venus,  they  are  represented  as  being  cut  off 
near  their  bases.  In  the  oyster  the  gills  have  been  moved 
from  this  position  on  the  sides  of  the  body  so  as  to  lie 
in  four  parallel  folds  on  its  ventral  margin  (Figure  3). 
Behind  the  body  the  four  gills  unite  so  as  to  separate 
a  space  above,  the  cloacal  chamber,  from  the  large  mantle 
chamber  below.  With  the  unaided  eye,  it  may  be  seen 
that  each  gill  is  vertically  striated.  Although  at  first 
sight  a  gill  appears  to  be  a  solid  fold  of  tissue,  closer 
examination  shows  it  to  be  made  of  two  plates  or 
lamellae  (from  which  the  name  Lamellibranchiata,  some- 
times given  to  the  bivalve  group,  is  derived),  which  en- 
close a  space  between  them.  Each  lamella,  also,  is  com- 
posed of  a  great  number  of  parallel,  hollow  rods,  the  gill 
filaments,  placed  regularly,  side  by  side,  so  that  the  plate, 
as  represented  in  a  diagram  (Figure  4),  has  a  re- 
semblance to  a  picket  fence.  Each  filament  corresponds 
to  a  picket,  the  lamella  to  the  fence,  and  the  entire  gill 
to  two  parallel  fences.  The  spaces  between  the  filaments 
allow  water  to  enter  the  interior  of  the  gill. 

In  one  important  respect,  the  illustration  of  the  par- 
allel fences  fails.  If  we  trace  a  single  gill  filament  from 
the  base  of  a  lamella  down  to  the  free  lower  margin  of 
the  gill,  we  will  find  that  it  does  not  end  there,  but  bends 
and  continues  upward  as  one  of  the  filaments  of  the  other 
lamella. 

As  these  rods  or  filaments  are  very  delicate  and  much 
elongated,  their  regular  position  might  easily  become  dis- 


Anatomy  of  the  Food  Mollusks  31 

turbed  if  there  were  no  means  of  binding  them  together. 
Such  a  means  is  always  provided,  but  it  is  different  in 
different  bivalves.  The  two  halves  or  lamellae  of  the 
gill  must  also  be  bound  together  by  cross  partitions  to 
prevent  their  spreading  apart,  and  they,  too,  are  always 
present. 

The    simplest   gills    among   our    edible   mollusks   are 
found  in  the  black  mussel   (Mytilus  edulis).     A  single 


FIG.  4. — Diagram  of  the  gill  of  the  mussel  (Mytilus 
edulis).  The  filaments  (/)  are  bound  together 
by  round  patches  of  cilia  shown  at  c.  Trans- 
verse bands  of  tissue  or  interlamellar  unions  (iu), 
hold  the  two  walls  or  lamellae  of  the  gill  together. 

filament,  isolated  from  the  gill,  is  shown  in  Figure  5. 
The  reference-letter  b  is  placed  at  its  point  of  origin  from 
the  body,  b  is  the  descending,  and  a  the  ascending 
limb.  At  the  bend,  which  marks  the  lower  edge  of  the 
gill,  the  filament  is  notched,  and  many  of  these  notches 
placed  side  by  side  form  a  groove  on  the  gill  margin, 
along  which  food  is  carried  forward  to  the  palp.  One 
of  the  interlamellar  unions  is  shown  at  i  u. 

The   relative  position  of   the  filaments   is   shown  in 


Our  Food  Mollusks 


FIG.  5.— Single 
filament  of 
the  gill  of 
the  black 
mussel.  The 
ref  erence- 
letter  b 
marks  the 
point  of 
origin  from 
the  side  of 
the  body,  d 
is  the  de- 
sc  e  n  d  i  n  g 
and  a  the 
ascending 
limb  of  the 
filament,  iu 
an  inter- 
lamellar 
union,  and  c 
one  of  the 
patches  of 
cilia  uniting 
contiguous 
filaments. 


Figure  4.  The  two  rows  of  tubes  represent 
the  outer  and  inner  lamellae.  Along 
regular  horizontal  lines  are  found  the  inter- 
filamentar  unions  (c).  They  are  small, 
rounded  patches,  slightly  elevated  from  the 
sides  of  the  filaments,  the  cells  of  which  bear 
long  cilia  or  hairs.  These  tufts  of  cilia  are 
placed  opposite  each  other  on  contiguous 
filaments,  and  are  intermingled  much  as  one 
might  interlock  the  bristles  of  two  paint 
brushes  by  pushing  them  together.  This 
intermingling  of  straight  hairs  is  sometimes 
disrupted,  but  they  have  a  slight  oscillatory 
movement,  and  on  being  brought  in  contact, 
soon  work  together  as  before.  The  inter- 
lamellar  unions  (i  u)  are  bands  of  tissue 
reaching  across  the  cavity  of  the  gill,  and 
uniting  the  two  limbs  of  the  same  filament. 
The  gills  of  Pecten  (Figure  6)  are  es- 
sentially like  these,  but  are  more  specialized 
in  that,  at  fairly  regular  intervals,  a  filament 
has  become  greatly  enlarged,  in  order  to 
support  firmly  the  interlamellar  partition 
which  it  develops.  Another  difference  is 
that  the  filaments  between  these,  instead  of 
lying  in  a  straight  line,  bend  outward  in 
a  fold.  Such  an  arrangement  allows  of  a 
greater  number  of  filaments  in  a  gill.  The 
interfilamentar  unions  in  the  scallop  are 
ciliary,  but  the  cilia,  instead  of  appearing  on 
patches  as  in  the  mussel,  are  borne  on  spurs 
that  project  from  the  filament  into  the  in- 
terior cavity  of  the  gill,  as  shown  at  c  s. 


Anatomy  of  the  Food  Mollusks 


3.3 


In  the  giant  or  northern  scallop,  cilia  unite  some  of 
the  filaments  near  the  free  margin  of  the  gill,  but  near  its 


FIG.  6. — A  portion  of  the  gill  of  the  scallop  (Pecten  irradians) 
showing  the  folding  of  lamellae.  The  reference-letter  / 
designates  one  of  the  filaments.  The  letters  cs  indicate 
ciliated  spurs  that  are  sectioned,  and  iu  an  interlamellar 
union. 

base  they  are  joined  by  bands  of  fine  tissue,  thus  form- 
ing a  much  more  stable  union.  This  growing  together 
of  adjacent  filaments  becomes  very  much  more  extensive 
in  the  clams  and  the  oysters. 

Comparing  the  gill  of  the  little  neck  clam,  Venus,  with 
that  of  the  scallop,  we  find  the  same  folding  of  the 
lamellae,  and  largely  developed  interlamellar  partitions. 
But  the  filaments  are  small  and  all  of  the  same  size.  The 
greatest  difference  in  the  two  cases  is  that  in  Venus 
the  filaments  have  grown  together  very  extensively  on 
their  inner  margins,  leaving  mere  slits  here  and  there 
where  water  may  enter  the  gill.  A  very  curious  struc- 
ture is  found  in  this  gill.  Thin  walled  sacs  grow  from 
the  interlamellar  partitions  and  the  filaments  into  the 


34 


Our  Food  Mollusks 


interior  chamber  of  the  gill.     They  contain  blood  and 
are  probably  developed  to  facilitate  its  oxygenation. 

While  the  oyster  has  become,  through  degeneration, 
one  of  the  simplest  of  lamellibranchs  in  general  struc- 
ture, its  gills  are  among  the  most  highly  modified  and 
perfected  to  be  found  in  the  group.  In  a  general  way, 
this  may  be  explained  by  saying  that  the  extensive  de- 
generation of  certain  organs  has  resulted  from  the  habit 


FIG.  7. — The  gill  of  the  oyster  (Ostrea  virginica).  Reference- 
letters  b  s  indicate  blood  spaces ;  /'  and  /"  enlarged  fila- 
ments at  reentering  angles  of  lamellar  folds;  other  letters 
as  before. 

of  fixation,  and  that  this  mode  of  life  has  made  special 
demands  on  the  gills,  which  have  been  rendered  more 
complex  in  consequence. 

Comparing  the  diagram  of  the  oyster  gill  (Figure  7) 
with  the  others,  the  folding  of  the  lamellae  seen  in  the 
scallop  gill,  is  developed  to  the  greatest  degree.  Be- 
tween folds  as  in  Pecten,  a  single  filament  is  greatly 
enlarged  (/'),  and  at  regular  intervals  a  large  interlam- 
ellar  partition  appears,  uniting  the  inner  edges  across 
the  gill  chamber  (/").  As  in  the  little  neck  gill  also, 


Anatomy  of  the  Food  Mollusks  35 

the  filaments  have  grown  together  by  their  inner  edges, 
leaving  slits  here  and  there  for  the  ingress  of  water. 

Figure  8  represents  a  cross 
section  of  several  filaments  in  the 
fold  of  a  lamella  of  the  oyster 
gill.  Four  of  these  filaments 
have  grown  together  along  their 
inner  margins.  If  the  section 
had  passed  a  little  higher  or  lower 
on  the  gill,  one  or  more  of  these 
would  have  been  shown  to  be  free 
from  the  others.  Several  free 
filaments  are  shown  in  the  figure,  FIG.  8.— Transverse  sec- 
and  between  them  water  enters  tions  of  several  fila- 

,1         •    ,  f     ,1  -11  ments    of    the    oyster's 

the    interior    of    the    gill.       But        •»     A      •        *  i    • 

gill.     A  union  of  the  in- 

above  and  below  the  plane  of  the      ner   edges   of   four  of 
section,  these  also  would  be  united      these    is    shown,    and 

with     contiguous     filaments     for      their    .  con\mon  A  blo°* 

space  is  indicated  at  b. 
shorter  or  longer  distances. 

Gill  filaments,  when  greatly  magnified  (Figure  9), 
show  essentially  the  same  structure  in  nearly  all  lamelli- 
branchs.  They  are  tubes  for  the  circulation  of  blood, 
and  their  walls  are  single  layers  of  cells  as  shown  in  the 
sectional  views  of  the  oyster  and  scallop  gills.  Each  fila- 
ment contains  a  pair  of  rods  of  secreted,  rubbery  sub- 
stance that  give  stiffness  to  the  slender  tube,  and  probably 
tend  to  keep  its  blood  space  (b)  open.  The  cells  of  the 
wall  are  modified  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  filament. 
Some  of  them  bear  an  immense  number  of  cilia  (/  c), 
which  are  protoplasmic  hairs  having  an  excessively  rapid 
lashing  movement  that  produces  currents  in  the  water, 
and  also  removes  foreign  particles  from  the  surface  of 
the  gill.  At  the  margins  of  this  tract  are  rows  of  cells 


Our  Food  Mollusks 


bearing  greatly  elongated  cilia.  In  the  majority  of 
lamellibranchs,  are  found  two  such  rows,  but  in  some 
cases  there  are  four,  two  on  each  side.  Among  the  cells 
that  bear  the  small  frontal  cilia,  are  certain  ones  that  have 
become  gland  cells  (g  c)  producing  a  large  quantity  of 
sticky  mucus  which  they  pour  out  on  the  surface  of  the 
filament. 

The  functions  performed  by  these  complicated  gills 
are  many.  They  are  breathing  organs,  and  were  prob- 
ably developed  originally  for  that 
purpose  alone.  Blood,  that  is  con- 
tinually streaming  through  the 
many  filaments,  is  brought  so  close 
to  the  water  surrounding  the  gills 
that  oxygen  borne  by  it  enters  the 
fluid  by  diffusion  and  is  then  car- 
ried to  all  parts  of  the  body.  But 
it  is  necessary  that  water  surround- 
ing the  gills  should  frequently  be 
changed  because  its  oxygen  is 
quickly  exhausted.  In  many  aqua- 
tic animals  the  gills  move  back  and 
forth  to  agitate  the  water,  or 
special  organs  are  developed  to 
direct  a  current  upon  them.  Here 
a  very  powerful  current  of  the 
most  effective  sort  is  produced  by 
the  gills  themselves.  The  cilia  lash 
in  such  a  way  as  to  drive  water 
between  filaments  on  both  sides  of  the  gill  into  its  inte- 
rior. The  passageway  is  indicated  by  the  arrows  in  the 
figures  of  the  oyster  and  scallop  gills.  The  current  does 
not  pause  here,  but  continues  swiftly  upward  toward  the 


FIG.  9. — Transverse  sec- 
tion of  a  single  fila- 
ment of  the  gill  of 
P  e  c  t  e  n  irradians. 
Structures  designated 
are:  —  /  c,  frontal 
cilia ;  g  c,  gland  cells ; 
^  c,  straining  cilia ; 
and  b,  blood  space. 


Anatomy  of  the  Food  Mollusks  37 

base  of  the  gill,  where  it  enters  a  tube  which  is  without 
obstructing  interlamellar  partitions,  and  leads  backward 
to  the  cloacal  chamber.  This  has  been  described  as  a 
space  above  the  four  gills  and  behind  the  main  portion 
of  the  body. 

Into  this  cloaca  all  four  gills  continually  pour  their 
streams,  which  unite  to  form  a  powerful  current  that 
leaves  the  body  either  directly  between  the  unmodified 
mantle  folds,  or  through  the  dorsal  chamber  of  the 
siphon  tube.  As  a  large  amount  of  water  is  in  this  way 
being  constantly  forced  out  of  the  body,  a  correspond- 
ing volume  is  being  drawn  in.  It  enters  directly  be- 
tween the  mantle  folds  into  the  gill  chamber,  or,  in  the 
clams,  is  drawn  into  it  through  the  ventral  tube  of  the 
siphon.  So  rapid  is  the  stream  in  all  forms,  that  with- 
out doubt  many  gallons  of  water  flow  through  the  gills 
daily. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  this  greatly  perfected 
pumping  mechanism  never  ceases  its  activity  during  the 
life  of  the  individual.  The  cilia  are  not  under  the  control 
of  the  nervous  system,  and  the  direction  of  their  beat- 
ing is  never  changed  or  apparently  slackened.  There  is 
but  one  way  to  prevent  the  streaming  of  water  through 
the  body,  and  that  is  to  close  the  shell  or  contract  the 
siphon  so  as  completely  to  close  the  gill  chamber. 

Now  it  happens  that  this  inflowing  stream  bears  many 
minute  marine  plants  that  these  shell-fish  use  for  food. 
They  are  not  so  numerous  but  that  a  large  amount  of 
water  must  be  strained  to  enable  the  animal  to  obtain 
enough  of  them  for  its  nourishment  and  growth.  These 
organisms  are  small  enough  to  pass  through  between 
the  gill  filaments  and  so  out  of  the  body  again;  but  on 
coming  in  contact  with  the  gill,  they  are  instantly  en- 


38  Our  Food  Mollusks 

tangled  in  the  mass  of  mucus  produced  by  the  gland 
cells  of  the  filaments. 

Cilia  now  carry  the  mucus,  with  its  captured  organ- 
isms, down  to  the  margin  of  the  gill,  or  in  some  cases  to 
its  base,  where  it  is  passed  forward  along  ciliated  tracts 
toward  the  palps.  The  palps,  on  touching  the  margin  of 
the  gill  with  their  inner  ciliated  surfaces,  remove  the 
mass,  which  travels  toward,  and  finally  into  the  mouth. 
In  addition  to  aerating  the  blood,  then,  the  gills  have 
become  modified  into  food  collecting  and  food  trans- 
porting organs  also. 

The  gills  of  the  European  oyster  and  several  other 
bivalves  also,  serve  as  baskets,  in  the  female,  into  which 
the  eggs  are  discharged.  Here  they  are  held  until  they 
have  passed  through  the  early  stages  of  development. 
This,  however,  does  not  occur  in  any  of  our  Atlantic 
food  mollusks. 


CHAPTER  III 
DEVELOPMENT 

N  view  of  the  present  vast  extent  of  knowledge 
concerning  the  minute  structure  of  animals 
and  plants,  it  seems  almost  incredible  that  the 
beginnings  of  such  studies  had  hardly  been 
made  within  the  lifetime  of  persons  now  living.  It  was 
not  until  nearly  four  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century 
had  passed,  that  the  epoch-making  fact  was  established 
that  the  bodies  of  all  organisms  were  composed  of  living 
units  which  were,  and  still  are,  called  cells. 

The  term  cell  is  really  a  misnomer,  for  it  implies  an 
investment  or  wall  enclosing  an  empty  space.  The  older 
observers  discovered  that  the  stems  of  woody  plants 
were  composed  of  bodies  having  thick  walls  that  in  each 
case  surrounded  an  empty  cavity.  These  bodies  they 
properly  called  cells,  but  the  units  of  structure  which 
they  had  discovered  were  really  only  walls,  the  essential 
or  living  parts  within  having  disappeared.  Such  empty 
spaces  are  not  found  in  animal  bodies  or  in  the  living 
and  growing  parts  of  plants. 

Cells  that  compose  the  body  of  an  animal  or  plant  are 
not  all  of  the  same  sort,  as  are  the  bricks  of  which  a 
building  is  constructed.  Some  are  nearly  spherical, 
others  are  flattened  or  are  elongated  into  fibers.  Most 
of  them  are  minute,  but  there  is  a  great  variation  in  their 

39 


40  Our  Food  Mollusks 

relative  size.  They  are  thus  differentiated  in  structure 
because  they  have  become  adapted  to  various  uses. 

So  far  as  we  are  able  to  judge,  all  cells,  whether  ani- 
mal or  plant,  are  essentially  similar  in  their  nature.  Each 
is  a  body  of  living  protoplasm,  usually  with  a  jelly-like 
consistency,  but  with  a  minute  structure  that  is  difficult 
to  determine.  Each  cell  mass  contains  a  small  spherical 
or  ovoid  body  called  the  nucleus.  This  is  a  part  of  the 
living  substance,  and  is  complicated  in  structure.  It  is 
a  constant  and  essential  part  of  the  cell. 

Among  the  cells  of  the  bodies  of  animals  and  plants 
are  those  set  apart  to  perform  the  function  of  repro- 
duction. The  essential  feature  of  sexual  reproduction 
is  the  union  of  two  cells,  usually  one  from  each  of  two 
parent  individuals,  to  produce  a  new  cell  which,  by  mul- 
tiplication, builds  the  body  of  the  offspring. 

These  two  sexual  cells  that  thus  unite,  differ  from 
each  other  in  size  and  in  structure.  The  female  cell,  or 
ovum,  as  it  is  called,  is  usually  spherical  and  often  rela- 
tively large  from  the  presence  of  secreted  yolk  or  food 
substance.  With  this  the  body  of  the  early  embryo  is 
to  be  fed  until  it  possesses  a  digestive  tract,  and  has  some 
means  of  capturing  its  own  food;  or,  in  animals  in 
which  the  young  develops  within  the  body  of  the  parent, 
until  it  forms  organs  by  means  of  which  it  can,  in  a 
parasitic  fashion,  take  its  food  from  the  body  of  the 
mother.  Because  they  carry  the  food  substance,  ova  are 
inert,  and  must  be  sought  by  the  male  cells. 

The  spermatozoa,  or  male  cells,  are  exceedingly  minute. 
In  structure  they  are  much  the  same  in  nearly  all  ani- 
mals. Each  is  a  single  cell  containing  a  nucleus.  This 
latter  body  forms  what  is  known  as  the  "  head,"  and  the 
remainder  of  the  cell  is  extended  from  it  in  the  form  of 


Development  41 

a  fine  thread  and  is  called  the  "  tail."  The  object  of 
such  an  extreme  modification  of  the  cell  becomes  clear 
when  it  is  observed  that  its  tail  or  flagellum  is  capable  of 
a  violent  lashing  movement  that  propels  it  rapidly 
through  the  fluid  in  which  it  finds  itself  after  being  dis- 
charged from  the  body  of  the  male.  This  cell  is  modified 
for  swimming  in  order  that  it  may  meet  the  ovum,  and 
its  great  motility  also  enables  it  to  penetrate  the  latter 
when  contact  with  it  has  been  effected. 

For  a  time  the  male  cells  possess  great  vitality,  though 
their  life  is  short  if  they  fail  to  meet  the  ovum,  for  they 
carry  no  food.  Even  in  higher  animals,  where,  in  per- 
forming their  function,  they  are  neither  exposed  to  the 
air  nor  to  a  change  of  temperature,  they  will  live  for  a 
time  outside  the  body,  and  apparently  are  not  injured  by 
many  salts  in  solution,  recover  from  the  effects  of  nar- 
cotics, and  may  even  regain  their  motion  after  being 
frozen. 

The  necessity  of  such  great  vitality  is  especially  clear 
in  the  case  of  marine  animals  like  oysters,  clams,  starfish, 
and  many  others,  where  there  is  no  union  of  the  sexes, 
but  a  mere  discharge  of  sexual  cells  into  the  water  where, 
often  under  adverse  conditions,  they  must  find  each 
other. 

The  ovum  and  spermatozoon  of  the  oyster,  and  also  the 
male  cells  of  the  quahaug  and  scallop,  are  represented 
in  Figure  10.  With  slight  changes  this  figure  would 
represent  equally  well  the  sexual  cells  of  other  bivalves — 
and,  in  fact,  those  of  almost  any  sexual  animal.  The 
ovum  is  seen  to  be  relatively  large,  with  a  conspicuous 
nucleus  (H),  and  bears  minute  granules  of  yolk.  The 
long  flagellum  or  tail  of  the  spermatozoon  drives  the 
cell  with  the  nucleus  forward.  The  latter  structure  has  a 


42  Our  Food  Mollusks 

slightly  different  shape  in  different  bivalves,  as  indicated 
in  the  figure. 

After  becoming  mature  in  the  sexual  glands  of  bi- 
valves, usually  in  the  early  summer,  both  male  and  fe- 
male cells  are  discharged  into  the  water.  Both  may  be 


FIG.  10. — Ovarian  ovum  of  the  oyster  (0) 
showing  nucleus  (w)  and  nucleolus  (»')• 
The  relative  size  of  the  male  cell  is  repre- 
sented by  the  small  figure  lying  near  it. 
There  are  also  shown,  greatly  magnified,  the 
spermatozoa  of  Ostrea  (a),  Pecten  (&), 
and  Venus  (c). 

carried  by  currents.  The  ova  are  passive  and  gradually 
sink,  but  the  spermatozoa  very  soon  begin  to  swim. 
They  are  vastly  more  numerous  than  the  eggs  which  they 
are  intended  to  find.  Though  a  single  spermatozoon 
only,  unites  with  an  ovum  in  normal  cases,  it  might  ap- 
pear that  conditions  are  such  that  comparatively  few 
unions  would  take  place,  and  the  opinion  is  sometimes 
expressed  that  such  probably  is  the  case.  There  is,  how- 
ever, no  good  reason  for  such  a  belief.  Males  and  fe- 
males with  full  glands,  may  be  stimulated  experiment- 
ally by  employing  certain  changes  in  the  surroundings 


Development  43 

in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  the  discharge  of  both  sexual 
products  simultaneously.  In  nature,  as  they  lie  close  to- 
gether, such  a  stimulus  as  a  rise  in  temperature  probably 
brings  about  the  same  result,  and  it  is  quite  possible  that 
few  ova  fail  to  be  found  by  spermatozoa. 

An  ovum  unites  with  a  single  spermatozoon  only. 
When  the  two  cells  finally  meet,  the  activity  of  the  flagel- 
lum  soon  forces  the  nucleus  or  head  into  the  body  of  the 
ovum.  The  flagellum  itself  does  not  enter.  Its  function 
being  completed,  it  is  cast  off. 

In  the  American  oyster  a  curious  phenomenon  appears 
just  at  this  time.  The  nucleus  of  the  ovum  divides  and 
a  small  cell  containing  half  of  it,  separates  from  the 
ovum.  The  process  is  soon  repeated,  and  a  second  small 
cell  appears  beside  the  first.  These  polar  cells,  as  they 
are  called,  are  shown  in  Figure  n,  II  to  VI,  and  are  des- 
ignated by  the  reference-letter  p.  They  have  no  part  in 
forming  the  body  of  the  embryo,  and  though  they  remain 
attached  to  it  for  some  time,  they  finally  are  lost.  The- 
oretically their  nature  can  be  very  satisfactorily  ac- 
counted for.  The  formation  of  polar  cells  has  been  wit- 
nessed in  most  animal  eggs.  It  precedes  fertilization, 
and  is  referred  to  as  the  maturation  of  the  ovum. 

The  male  and  female  nuclei  now  lying  within  the 
ovum,  move  toward  each  other,  touch,  and  finally  fuse 
to  form  a  single  new  nucleus.  Once  more  we  have  an 
ovum  with  its  nucleus,  but  it  is  now  a  complex  of  male 
as  well  as  of  female  elements.  This  wonderful  process 
is  still  called  fertilization,  a  term  given  to  it  when  it  was 
supposed  that  the  male  cell  simply  stimulated  or  excited 
the  ovum  to  produce  a  new  individual.  We  now  know 
that  it  has  an  equal  part  with  the  ovum  in  forming  the 
body  of  the  young. 


44  Our  Food  Mollusks 

The  new  cell,  called  the  fertilized  ovum,  or,  better,  the 
oosperm,  now  begins  a  process  of  division  that  results  in 
a  large  aggregate  of  cells,  which  gradually  group  and 
arrange  themselves  into  the  form  of  organs,  in  which 
form,  position,  size  and  function,  conform  to  the  con- 
ditions characteristic  of  the  species. 

There  is  nothing  in  nature  so  marvelous  as  this  mi- 
nute fragment  of  living  substance.  It  was  formerly  be- 
lieved that  the  oosperm  was  a  fully  formed  individual  in 
miniature,  possessing  all  the  organs  of  the  adult  body, 
and  that,  like  a  plant  bud,  it  merely  expanded  and  un- 
folded during  development.  In  reality  it  is  a  simple  cell, 
undifferentiated  in  structure,  and  yet  possessing  the  most 
wonderful  potentialities.  If  we  place  side  by  side  the 
fertilized  ova  of  the  simplest  and  the  most  highly  special- 
ized of  many-celled  animals,  we  are  able  to  discover 
only  minor  differences  in  structure,  such  as  are  easily  ac- 
counted for  by  secondary  causes — a  greater  or  less  ac- 
cumulation of  yolk  and  the  like.  Even  the  fertilized 
ova  of  plants  are  essentially  similar  to  these.  And  yet 
we  know  that  each  holds  in  its  minute  body,  when  living, 
the  hidden  power  to  set  in  motion  and  to  continue  a  long 
series  of  marvelous  transformations,  ending  in  one  case 
in  the  production  of  a  sponge,  or  in  another  of  a  human 
being.  The  marvel  of  it  was  recognized  before  Paley,  a 
century  ago,  wrote : — "  A  particle,  in  many  cases  minuter 
than  all  assignable,  all  conceivable  dimensions;  an  aura, 
an  effluvium,  an  infinitesimal;  determines  the  organiza- 
tion of  a  future  body;  does  no  less  than  fix  whether 
that  which  is  about  to  be  produced,  shall  be  a  vegetable, 
a  mere  sentient,  or  a  rational  being:  an  oak,  a  frog, 
or  a  philosopher." 

The  oosperm  possesses  the  power  of  self-division,  a 


FIG.  ii.     The    development    of     the    American    oyster,    after 
Professor   W.   K.    Brooks. 


Development  45 

power  that  its  cell  descendants  retain.  The  man- 
ner of  its  division  or  segmentation  in  the  American 
oyster  will  illustrate  the  process  in  the  group  of  the  bi- 
valves, and,  briefly  following  the  description  of  Pro- 
fessor Brooks,  is  as  follows : — 

About  an  hour  after  the  male  cell  has  entered  the 
ovum,  the  latter  becomes  somewhat  enlarged  at  one  end 
— that  to  which  the  pole  cells  are  attached.  The  nucleus 
of  the  ovum  divides,  the  two  nuclei  separate,  and  a  con- 
striction of  the  body  of  the  cell  separates  it  into  two  cells. 
The  cell  to  which  the  pole  cells  are  attached  soon  di- 
vides, and  a  stage  represented  by  II  in  Figure  1 1  appears. 
Here  are  shown  one  large  and  two  slightly  smaller  cells. 
Preceding  every  division,  there  is  a  division  of  the 
nucleus,  so  that  every  cell  always  contains  a  nuclear 
body. 

Even  thus  early  in  development,  it  is  possible  to  de- 
termine a  difference  in  the  fate  of  these  cells.  From  the 
single  larger  one,  will  arise  the  digestive  tract,  and 
from  the  two  smaller,  will  be  formed  the  outer  wall  of 
the  body. 

In  the  course  of  a  few  minutes,  if  the  temperature  is 
not  below  70°  Fahrenheit,  the  two  smaller  cells  divide, 
forming  four,  each  of  which  is  about  half  the  size  of  the 
cell  from  which  it  is  derived.  Again  after  a  pause,  there 
is  another  division  of  the  small  cells.  One  more  division 
gives  us  the  segmenting  egg  represented  by  VI,  in  which 
one  large  cell  is  partially  covered  by  a  cap  of  several 
smaller  ones. 

The  multiplication  of  the  smaller  cells  continues,  and 
they  spread  still  farther  over  the  surface  of  the  larger 
one.  The  latter  finally  divides,  forming  an  inner  layer. 
The  relative  positions  of  these  parts  is  illustrated  by  VII, 


46  Our  Food  Mollusks 

which  represents  a  section  cut  through  the  center  of  the 
mass.  The  outer  cells,  darkly  shaded  in  the  drawing, 
will  form  the  wall  of  the  body,  the  inner  ones  the  di- 
gestive tract.  ,  The  reference-letters  s  t  indicate  a  pit  or 
cavity,  now  wide  open  to  the  surface,  but  later  nearly 
closed,  which  becomes  the  stomach.  The  reduced  open- 
ing is  the  primitive  mouth. 

Up  to  this  time,  the  shape  of  the  embryo  has  ap- 
proached that  of  a  sphere,  but  it  now  changes,  assum- 
ing a  form  like  that  represented  by  VIII.  The  outlines  of 
surface  cells  are  shown  here,  but  in  subsequent  figures 
they  are  omitted.  At  one  end  of  the  body  the  surface 
cells  throw  out  some  protoplasmic  hairs,  or  cilia,  which 
begin  a  lashing  or  rowing  movement  so  violent  that 
the  embryo  is  raised  from  the  bottom,  where  it  has 
been  lying,  and  swims  upward  to  the  surface  of  the 
water. 

From  two  to  four  hours  have  now  elapsed  since  sper- 
matozoon and  ovum  united.  As  in  the  case  of  many 
other  animals,  the  rate  of  segmentation  depends  on  tem- 
perature. When  this  is  lower  than  the  optimum,  devel- 
opment is  retarded,  and  may  be  stopped  altogether.  The 
swimming  embryos  of  the  oyster  are  greatly  affected  by 
cold,  and  a  heavy  shower  or  cold  wind  coming  when  they 
are  gathered  at  the  surface,  may  kill  them  all.  This  ap- 
parently often  happens  on  the  north  Atlantic  coast,  and 
probably  accounts  for  the  failure  of  the  "  set  of  spat  " 
which  sometimes  occurs  in  restricted  localities,  or  even 
generally,  in  certain  years.  Such  a  failure  is  almost  un- 
known in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
reproduction  of  the  eastern  oyster  is  almost  entirely 
prevented  in  the  cold  waters  of  the  Pacific,  where  it  is 
planted  and  is  able  to  grow. 


Development  47 

Soon  after  the  embryo  begins  to  swim,  the  valves  of 
the  shell  appear  as  minute  secreted  plates  one  on  each 
side  of  the  body.  In  other  bivalves,  the  shell  rudiment  is 
at  first  unpaired.  These  shells  grow  rapidly  at  their 
edges,  and  soon  cover  the  body.  Sheets  of  cells  grow 
out  to  line  the  shell  valves  on  their  inner  surfaces,  and 
become  the  mantle  folds.  The  part  of  the  body  bearing 
the  cilia  projects  as  a  rounded  disk  which  is  called  the 
velum.  Muscle  fibers  form  by  the  elongation  of  cells  in 
mantle  and  velum,  and  by  their  contraction,  these  parts 
may  be  entirely  withdrawn  within  the  shell. 

In  the  meantime,  internal  changes  have  occurred.  Ac- 
cording to  Professor  Brooks,  the  primitive  mouth  closes. 
In  about  the  same  locality,  the  surface  of  the  body  then 
pushes  in  to  form  a  pit.  The  bottom  of  this  unites  with 
the  anterior  end  of  the  stomach.  These  walls  are  broken 
through,  and  the  stomach  and  the  new  mouth  become 
connected.  Posterior  to  the  mouth  a  second  pit  from  the 
surface  of  the  body  touches  the  stomach.  Its  cavity  in 
the  same  way  becomes  connected  with  it,  and  there  are 
formed  the  anal  opening  and  the  rudiment  of  the  intes- 
tine (X  and  XI,  oysters  about  three  and  six  days  old 
respectively). 

Up  to  this  time,  the  embryo  has  subsisted  only  on  the 
food  yolk  deposited  in  the  ovum  during  its  growth  in 
the  parent's  body.  Consequently  it  has  not  increased  in 
volume.  With  the  formation  of  mouth  and  anus,  it  be- 
gins to  capture  organisms  in  the  water  and  to  digest 
them,  and  rapidly  increases  in  size. 

An  interesting  feature  of  the  development  is  the  for- 
mation of  a  foot  which  is  never  used,  because  the  embryo 
becomes  attached  before  it  is  large  enough  to  make  use  of 
a  creeping  organ.  An  anterior  as  well  as  a  posterior  ad- 


48  Our  Food  Mollusks 

ductor  muscle  also  appears.  Subsequently  the  foot  and 
anterior  adductor  degenerate  and  completely  disappear. 

During  the  formation  of  the  shell  the  small  oysters 
leave  the  surface  of  the  water  and  continue  for  some  time 
to  swim  at  lower  levels.  About  the  sixth  or  seventh 
day  after  development  begins,  they  settle  to  the  bottom, 
and,  if  fortunate  enough  to  come  in  contact  with  a  hard, 
clean  surface,  attach  themselves  by  a  sticky  secretion 
of  the  mantle.  In  the  figure,  XII  represents  such  a  re- 
cently attached  oyster,  and  shows  the  finger-like  rudi- 
ments of  the  inner  gill,  which  is  the  first  of  these  organs 
to  form.  The  velum  with  its  cilia,  having  now  become 
useless,  soon  disappears. 

The  early  development  of  two  or  three  others  of  our 
edible  bivalves  has  now  been  studied,  and  it  appears  that 
the  succession  of  changes  in  each  is  very  much  like  that 
of  the  oyster,  as  would  be  expected.  But  because  of 
differences  in  the  manner  of  living  in  adults  of  different 
species,  we  find  diversities  of  structure  appearing  soon 
after  the  swimming  stage.  The  details  of  the  early  life 
of  some  of  these  forms  are  not  yet  known,  but  many  ob- 
servations have  been  made  on  the  growth  and  habits  of 
the  attached  oyster,  the  small  soft  clam,  and  the  young 
scallop,  and  these  will  subsequently  be  mentioned. 


CHAPTER  IV 
CILIARY  MECHANISMS 


LITTLE  more  than  a  century  ago,  a  remark- 
able book  on  Natural  Theology  was  published 
by  William  Paley,  an  English  ecclesiastic.  It 
presented  an  argument  for  the  existence  and 
benevolence  of  a  personal  deity,  and  was  founded  on 
some  of  the  phenomena  of  nature.  In  essence,  Paley 's 
argument  was  that  the  existence  of  any  contrivance  in 
nature  necessarily  involved  the  existence  of  a  designing 
mind  which  created  it,  and  he  described  many  mecha- 
nisms which  are,  without  doubt,  constructed  for  very 
definite  and  particular  uses.  This  argument  was  not 
new  in  Paley's  time.  It  had  previously  been  presented 
in  published  form  by  a  Dutch  writer,  and  undoubtedly  had 
existed  in  some  form  in  man's  mind  since  an  early  period. 
But  Paley  developed  it  elaborately  and  with  great  success, 
and  it  has  ever  since  had  a  powerful  influence  on  the 
common  conceptions  of  the  Creator  and  the  universe. 

Nevertheless  the  world  has  generally  come  to  agree 
with  Huxley's  statement  that  Paley's  argument  from 
design,  as  he  evidently  intended  to  apply  it,  received  its 
death-blow  from  Darwin's  "  Origin  of  Species,"  which 
accounts  in  quite  a  different  manner  for  the  appearance  of 
mechanisms  in  nature.  What  Paley  really  accomplished 
for  the  theology  of  his  time,  was  the  damming  up  of  the 
flood  of  knowledge  that  later  destroyed  the  greater  part 

49 


SO  Our  Food  Mollusks 

of  it.  It  was  the  irony  of  fate  that  the  lasting  benefit 
of  his  labor  was  to  natural  science,  the  deadly  foe  of 
theology,  by  fixing  in  the  mind  of  the  thinking  world,  as 
nothing  else  had  done,  knowledge  concerning  the  utilities 
of  mechanisms,  the  usefulness  of  parts,  and  the  adaptation 
of  the  whole  organism  to  its  environment — foundation 
facts  in  Darwin's  explanation  of  the  origin  of  species  by 
natural  selection. 

So  it  has  happened  that  the  structure  and  operation  of 
mechanisms  in  animal  and  plant  bodies  have  received 
much  attention  from  biologists,  and  have  often  excited 
great  admiration  for  the  complexities  and  beauties  of 
their  adjustments.  Illustrations  of  mechanisms  may  be 
had  from  any  group  of  organisms,  though  the  more  in- 
tricate ones  are  to  be  found,  as  might  be  expected,  in 
the  bodies  of  higher  animals  or  plants. 

They  are  often  very  complicated,  however,  in  more 
lowly  forms.  Judging  from  the  jocular  references  to 
the  placidity  of  the  oyster  and  the  happiness  of  the  clam 
that  no  popular  writer  has  ever  been  able  to  avoid  when 
mentioning  them,  the  common  notion  seems  to  be  that 
these  are  inert,  structureless,  functionless  masses  of  pulp, 
living  the  simple  life  reduced  to  its  lowest  possible  terms. 
But  in  the  chapter  on  anatomy,  it  was  shown  that  a  semi- 
automatic ciliary  mechanism  exists  in  the  members  of  the 
bivalve  group  for  straining  food  particles  out  of  the 
water  and  passing  them  to  the  mouth.  That  such  a 
function  was  performed,  has  been  known  for  a  long  time, 
but  it  was  first  observed  by  the  writer  that  there  exists 
in  connection  with  it  another  and  even  more  complicated 
mechanism,  depending  largely  on  the  nervous  system  for 
its  operation,  by  means  of  which  mud  and  other  useless 
matter  collected  by  the  gills  may  be  carried  away  from 


Ciliary  Mechanisms  51 

the  mouth  and  out  of  the  body.  It  is  because  this  mech- 
anism is  so  intricate  and  so  beautifully  adapted  to  the 
environment  in  which  bivalves  live,  and  because  few  facts 
concerning  it  have  yet  been  published,  that  a  short  de- 
scription of  it,  as  it  appears  in  the  common  food  mol- 
lusks,  will  be  given  here. 

But  first,  brief  .mention  must  be  made  of  the  minute 
food  organisms  which  the  animal  allows  to  pass  into  its 
mouth.  Then  it  may  be  noted  how  it  deals  with  the  un- 
desirable mud  particles,  also  brought  by  the  incoming 
stream,  and  how  it  rids  itself  of  them  without  checking 
the  flow  of  water  into  the  body. 

There  are  reasons  for  believing  that,  from  the  begin- 
ning, lamellibranchs  lived  on  floating  organisms  that 
they  were  able  to  take  from  the  water.  However  that 
may  be,  all  living  forms  whether  creeping,  attached,  or 
burrowed  in  the  bottom,  now  derive  their  nourishment 
entirely  from  microscopically  small  organisms  brought 
to  the  body  by  the  action  of  the  gills. 

The  food  forms  thus  captured  and  consumed,  belong, 
with  few  exceptions,  to  a  universally  distributed  group 
of  plants  known  as  diatoms.  They  are  single-celled  or- 
ganisms, but  possess  some  structural  modifications  of 
great  complexity.  The  bit  of  protoplasm  constituting 
the  living  part  of  the  body  is  enclosed  in  a  case  of  pure 
glass,  made  of  two  pieces  nearly  equal  in  size,  one  fitting 
into  the  other  like  a  pill-box  into  its  cover.  This  case  is 
often  sculptured  with  extremely  minute  and  exquisitely 
regular  markings,  definite  patterns  characterizing  many 
species.  In  outline  they  vary  from  circular  disks  to 
slender  rods  (Figure  12).  On  account  of  their  beauty 
and  variety,  they  are  the  stock  subjects  for  exhibition  by 
amateur  microscopists. 


52  Our  Food  Mollusks 

As  might  be  expected,  all  localities  are  not  equally 
favorable  for  the  growth  of  these  plants.  Temperature 
has  much  to  do  with  the  rate  of  their  multiplication. 


FIG.  12.— Diatoms   found  in  the  stomachs  of  oysters.     (From  the 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Fisheries.) 

They  are  numerous  enough  in  the  cold  waters  of  the  At- 
lantic coast  above  Cape  Cod  to  support  large  areas  of 
long  neck  clams,  but  their  numbers  are  much  greater  in 


Ciliary  Mechanisms  53 

warm  waters  like  those  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  They 
are  more  numerous  in  the  shallow  waters  of  coast  lines 
than  in  the  open  sea,  probably  because  the  salts  in  solu- 
tion, forming  a  necessary  part  of  the  material  required 
for  their  nourishment,  exist  in  sufficient  quantities  only 
near  the  mouths  of  rivers  or  small  streams  which,  in 
turn,  have  derived  them  from  the  soil.  The  tempera- 
ture of  the  water  on  extensive  flats  and  in  shallow  estu- 
aries, also,  is  higher  than  in  the  open  ocean.  As  a  re- 
sult of  this  distribution  of  diatoms,  bivalves  are  most 
numerous  in  comparatively  shallow  waters  near  the  land. 

The  normal  process  of  feeding,  when  the  water  is  free 
from  mud,  is  much  the  same  in  all  bivalves.  Imagine 
an  oyster,  for  example,  lying  with  valves  open  in  water 
containing  only  diatoms.  The  cilia  on  both  surfaces  of 
each  gill  continually  drive  water  from  the  branchial 
chamber  through  the  spaces  between  filaments  and  into 
the  gill  interior.  Here  it  passes  upward  to  the  base  of 
the  gill,  falls  into  the  epibranchial  space,  and  is  forced 
backward  and  discharged  from  the  body  above  the  gills. 

Now  and  then  the  stream  bears  a  diatom  to  the  gill 
surface.  On  touching  a  filament,  it  instantly  adheres  to 
the  sticky  mucus  produced  by  the  gland  cells.  This 
mucus,  with  its  entangled  diatoms,  is  then  moved 
by  the  gill  cilia  down  to  the  free  edge  of  the  gill, 
as  indicated  by  the  arrows  on  the  gill  surface  in  Figure 
3.  It  now  proceeds  forward  on  the  gill  margin  until 
the  palps  are  reached.  The  material  is  transferred  from 
the  gill  to  the  ciliated  inner  surfaces  of  the  palps,  and 
proceeds  directly  across  their  ridges  toward,  and  finally 
into  the  funnel-like  mouth.  So  much  of  the  function  of 
the  gill  and  palp  cilia  has  been  known  to  biologists  for 
many  years,  but  practically  nothing  more  has  been  ob- 


54  Our  Food  Mollusks 

served,  though  there  are  several  variations  in  the  method 
of  directing  food  to  the  mouth.  The  fact  that  palps  in 
all  forms  also  possess  ciliated  tracts  leading  away  from 
the  mouth,  and  that  the  sides  of  the  visceral  mass  and 
the  walls  of  the  mantle  possess  complicated  ciliated  sur- 
faces, has  been  very  generally  overlooked. 

In  some  bivalves  certain  gill  faces  or  lamellae  carry 
the  captured  organisms  to  the  base,  instead  of  to  the 
margin  of  the  gill,  where  they  also  are  borne  along 
ciliated  paths  leading  to  the  palp  surfaces;  and  in  one 
case  among  our  food  mollusks,  that  of  the  scallops,  the 
transportation  on  the  gill  faces  may  at  one  time  be  to  the 
bases,  at  another  to  the  edges  of  the  gill,  and  without  any 
reversal  of  the  ciliary  action.  The  figure  of  the  oyster 
also  shows  a  tract  at  the  gill  base  that  leads  to  the  palps. 

One  who  carefully  observes  oyster  beds  or  clam  flats 
at  different  seasons,  notices  that  there  are  often  great 
changes  in  external  conditions.  Even  where  tide  cur- 
rents are  strong,  thus  mixing  waters,  there  is  consider- 
able variation  in  temperature  during  the  summer,  and 
the  average  difference  between  summer  and  winter  tem- 
peratures on  the  north  Atlantic  coast  of  course  is  great. 
Continued  cold  checks  the  growth  of  diatoms,  and  so  les- 
sens the  amount  of  bivalve  food.  Though  it  has  not 
been  carefully  studied  in  most  forms,  it  has  recently  been 
shown  that  scallops  and  little  neck  clams  do  not  grow  at 
all  during  the  winter  in  northern  waters.  Whether  this 
is  true  of  warm  southern  waters  is  not  known,  but  prob- 
ably it  is  not.  It  is  a  safe  prediction  that  the  growth  of 
all  bivalves  living  on  the  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
will  be  found  to  be  uninterrupted.  There  are  also  great 
changes  in  the  salinity  of  water,  especially  near  the 
mouths  of  rivers  entering  the  sea,  and  oysters  par- 


Ciliary  Mechanisms  55 

ticularly  are  sensitive  to  such  changes.  Along  the  shore 
of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  near  the  mouths  of  the  Missis- 
sippi and  other  rivers,  the  water  for  days  at  a  time  may 
be  nearly  fresh  enough  to  drink. 

It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  determine  the  precise  effect 
of  such  changes  on  the  inhabitants  of  the  bottom,  but 
there  is  one  condition,  frequently  observed,  the  response 
to  which  in  the  case  of  bivalves,  we  are  now  able  to  de- 
scribe in  detail.  This  condition  is  the  periodical  loading 
of  the  water  with  mud,  that  occurs  on  all  coasts.  It  may 
be  observed  even  on  the  Maine  coast  in  regions  where 
there  are  practically  no  beaches  or  flats,  and  where  the 
bottoms  are  very  generally  rocky;  and  almost  every- 
where along  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  but  espe- 
cially near  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  the  water  is 
clear  One  day  and  fairly  thick  with  mud  the  next.  The 
phenomenon  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  irregular  dis- 
charge of  rivers  and  to  tide  currents. 

It  may  readily  be  understood  that  water  bearing  sus- 
pended mud  or  fine  sand  presents  a  serious  problem  to 
the  bivalve  feeding  on  microscopic  plants  strained  from 
it,  and  if  the  gill  apparatus  that  collects  them  were  the 
only  one  to  deal  with  them,  mud  as  well  as  food  would 
necessarily  be  carried  into  the  digestive  tract  as  long  as 
the  shell  was  allowed  to  remain  open.  This  ingestion  of 
mud  or  sand  normally  occurs  in  some  animals  that  are 
able  to  digest  the  organic  matter  included  in  the  mass, 
but,  with  the  exception  of  one  known  genus,  the  digestive 
organs  of  shell-fish  are  evidently  not  suited  to  perform 
such  a  function.  There  are  two  ways  in  which  the  prob- 
lem may  be  solved.  While  the  water  is  muddy,  the 
shell  may  be  closed  so  as  entirely  to  prevent  it  from 
entering  the  body,  or  the  flow  may  be  allowed  to  con- 


56  Our  Food  Mollusks 

tinue  and  the  mud  strained  out  and  discharged  from  the 
mantle  chamber  instead  of  being  taken  to  the  mouth. 
But  an  objection  to  closing  the  shell  for  long  periods  is 
that  aeration  of  the  blood  ceases  when  the  water  stops 
flowing.  It  is  true  that  some  lamellibranchs  may  live 
for  days  or  weeks  out  of  the  water,  when  the  tempera- 
ture is  low,  but  they  seem  to  be  injured  by  such  treat- 
ment, at  least  in  the  adult  state.  Probably  for  this  rea- 
son, the  second  plan  is  the  one  that  has  been  adopted. 

Bivalves  persist  in  keeping  the  shell  open,  thus  allow- 
ing water  to  enter  the  branchial  chamber,  even  when 
bearing  mud  in  considerable  quantity.  On  entering, 
many  of  the  suspended  particles  are  brought  in  contact 
with  the  inner  faces  of  the  mantle  and  the  wall  of  the 
visceral  mass.  Now  all  of  the  free  surfaces  of  the 
mantle  chamber — mantle,  visceral  mass,  and  gills  alike — 
produce  a  sticky  mucous  secretion,  so  that  particles 
adhere  to  any  of  these  surfaces  that  they  happen  to 
touch.  Let  us  first  inquire  into  the  disposition  of  those 
that  are  lodged  against  the  inner  mantle  wall. 

Figure  13  represents  the  inner  surface  of  the  mantle 
(m)  lining  the  left  valve  of  the  shell  of  the  hard  clam, 
Venus.  All  other  parts  of  the  body  have  been  removed. 
If  a  few  grains  of  powdered  carmine  or  fine  sand  are 
allowed  to  settle  through  the  water  upon  a  living  specimen 
prepared  in  this  way,  they  may  be  seen  to  adhere  to  the 
mantle  wherever  they  touch  it,  and  then,  together  with 
the  mass  of  mucus  in  which  they  are  held,  they  begin  to 
move  in  the  direction  indicated  by  the  arrows  of  the 
figure. 

This  movement  is  due  to  the  action  of  cilia,  lashing 
continually  in  definite  directions,  and  uncontrolled  by 
the  nervous  system.  Everything  is  moved  downward, 


Ciliary  Mechanisms  57 

finally  reaching  a  sharply  defined  tract  parallel  with  the 
mantle  edge.  Here  the  stream  is  directed  backward  to 
a  point  just  below  the  opening  of  the  incurrent  siphon 
0'  s).  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  siphon  is  a  pair 
of  tubes  formed  as  a  growth  from  the  mantle,  and  that  in 
the  living  clam,  a  strong  stream  of  water  enters  the 


FIG.  13.— Ciliation  of  the  mantle  of  the  round  clam  or  "little  neck" 
(Venus  mercenaria).  The  arrows  indicate  the  directions  taken 
by  foreign  particles  in  the  mantle  chamber  that  come  in  contact 
with  the  mantle  wall.  The  palps  are  represented  at  p. 

lower  one.  If  a  mass  of  material  being  moved  by  the 
mantle  cilia  were  brought  in  contact  with  this  stream, 
it  would  be  swept  far  back  again  into  the  mantle  cham- 
ber, so  it  comes  to  rest  in  this  small  bay  below  the  siphon, 
where  a  considerable  quantity  of  it  may  collect.  What 
is  to  become  of  it?  It  could  not  easily  be  carried  di- 
rectly outward  between  the  edges  of  the  mantle,  because 
the  entire  shell  is  covered  in  the  bottom.  The  only 


58  Our  Food  Mollusks 

path  to  the  exterior  is  through  the  lower  tube  of  the 
siphon,  and  cilia  could  not  possibly  move  the  mass 
against  its  powerful  incoming  current. 

When  a  sufficient  quantity  has  collected,  the  clam 
suddenly  contracts  the  adductor  muscles,  the  result  being 
that  some  of  the  water  filling  the  spacious  mantle  cham- 
ber is  thrown  out  in  a  strong  jet  through  the  lower 
siphon  tube,  and  the  waste  material  being  in  so  favor- 
able a  position  for  it,  is  discharged.  All  bivalves  seem 
to  have  this  habit  of  periodically  discharging  water  from 
the  mantle  chamber,  and  for  the  reason  given.  Long 
neck  clams,  if  steamed  or  baked  immediately  after  be- 
ing taken  from  their  burrows,  usually  contain  in  the 
mantle  chamber  a  very  annoying  amount  of  sand.  But 
if  they  are  allowed  to  stand  over  night  in  a  bucket  of 
clean  water,  the  sand  is  removed.  In  effecting  its  re- 
moval, a  large  part  of  the  water  of  the  bucket  will  be 
found  on  the  ground  where  it  has  been  thrown,  some- 
times to  a  distance  of  several  feet,  by  the  powerful  jets 
directed  out  of  the  siphons. 

Though  there  are  always  differences  in  details,  the 
mantle  ciliation  of  all  lamellibranchs  so  far  examined 
is  practically  like  that  of  Venus.  Apparently  its  sole 
function  is  the  removal  of  objectionable  matter  from 
the  body. 

The  ciliary  tracts  of  the  side  of  the  body  are  repre- 
sented in  Figure  14.  Mud  particles  or  fine  sand  grains 
adhering  to  its  surface  are  carried  backward  to  the 
point  x,  where  they  fall  on  the  mantle,  which  disposes 
of  them  as  described.  The  figure  also  illustrates  the 
position  of  the  labial  palps  and  shows  the  striations  or 
ridges  on  the  inner  face  of  the  posterior  one,  across 
which  food  is  carried  to  the  mouth. 


Ciliary  Mechanisms 


59 


But  the  mantle  and  sides  of  the  body  collect  com- 
paratively little  of  the  mud  from  the  water,  for  the 
stream  that  rushes  into  the  gills  brings  to  their  surfaces 
the  greater  part  of  it.  Probably  none  of  it  is  allowed 
to  enter,  but  all  is  caught  by  the  mucus  on  the  gill  sur- 
faces. It  now  is  carried  downward  on  all  the  gill 


FIG.  14. — Cilia  currents  on  the  side  of  the  visceral  mass  of  the 
round  clam,  Venus.  The  currents  on  the  inner  surface  of 
the  palp  are  also  shown. 

lamellae  to  the  edges  of  the  gill,  in  Venus,  and,  falling 
into  the  grooves  on  their  margins,  is  conducted  swiftly 
forward  toward  the  palps.  The  position  of  these  organs 
is  seen  to  be  such  that  the  edge  of  the  inner  gill  lies  be- 
tween them. 

In  one  case  at  least,   among  bivalves    (Yoldia),  the 
gills  possess  a  special  mechanism  by  means  of  which  col- 


60  Our  Food  Mollusks 

lected  material  may,  if  it  is  desirable,  be  transported  di- 
rectly to  the  epibranchial  chamber  and  out  of  the  body; 
but  in  all  of  our  food  mollusks,  the  gills  can  only  collect 
and  transport  to  the  palps  any  material,  whether  food 
organisms  or  mud  particles,  that  comes  to  them  in  mod- 
erate quantities.  If  the  mass  of  material  is  very  great, 
it  may  sometimes  fall  from  the  gill  margins  to  the  mantle 
walls,  instead  of  going  to  the  palps. 

But  in  all  cases  in  which  the  labial  palps  receive  ma- 
terial collected  by  the  gills,  they  determine  whether  it 
shall  go  into  the  digestive  tract  or  be  sent  out  of  the 
body.  Their  inner  surfaces  are  seen  to  bear  fine  parallel 
lines,  the  direction  of  which  is  indicated  in  Figures  3  and 
14.  These  ridges  are  ciliated  and  the  hairs  lash  in  such 
a  direction  that  food  crosses  over  them  on  its  way  to 
the  mouth.  The  palps  being  muscular  and  capable  of 
extensive  movements,  receive  material  from  the  gill  edge 
simply  by  placing  their  inner  surfaces  against  the  gill, 
and  the  mass  of  mucus  with  its  particles  is  easily  lifted 
off  and  carried  onward. 

But  on  the  lower  edge  of  each  palp,  as  shown  in  the 
figures,  is  an  unstriated  margin  very  strongly  ciliated, 
that  sweeps  directly  away  from  the  mouth.  Now  when 
large  quantities  of  material  are  delivered  by  the  gills,  the 
palps  at  once  respond  by  moving  these  margins  into  such 
a  position  that  they,  instead  of  the  ridges,  remove  the 
gill  collection.  Then,  swinging  down,  with  their  loads 
of  accumulated  waste,  the  palps  cast  the  material  off 
from  their  free  tips  into  the  mantle  chamber.  Here  the 
undesirable  collection  is  picked  up  by  the  mantle  cilia, 
and  disposed  of  in  the  manner  already  described.  This 
ciliated  margin  of  the  palp,  then,  is  the  special  organ  for 
switching  the  mud  accumulation  on  to  the  outgoing  track. 


Ciliary  Mechanisms  61 

It  is  practically  the  same  in  other  lamellibranchs,  though 
in  some  cases  the  entire  mechanism  is  much  more  com- 
plex than  in  the  little  neck  or  oyster. 

Though  diatoms  and  useless  particles  are  sometimes 
brought  to  the  gills  at  the  same  time,  an  examination 
of  the  stomach  contents  of  any  bivalve  will  show  that 
there  has  been  a  selection  of  the  food  organisms  and  an 
exclusion  of  mud  or  fine  sand.  The  latter  are  some- 
times found  in  the  stomach,  but  in  small  amounts.  When 
this  mixed  mass  of  food  and  mud  is  brought,  it  is  not 
possible  to  separate  them,  and  the  whole  is  rejected  and 
sent  out  of  the  body.  It  thus  happens  that  the  bivalve 
ceases  to  feed  when  the  water  is  muddy  to  a  certain  de- 
gree, though  it  still  allows  water  to  enter  the  mantle 
chamber,  presumably  for  the  sake  of  the  oxygen  it 
bears. 

It  appears  that  the  animal  is  not  able  to  distinguish 
food  from  mud  particles  either  by  the  gills  or  palps, 
but  the  selection  of  food  results  directly  from  the  dif- 
ferences in  the  response  of  the  palps  to  varying  quan- 
tities of  matter  transported  to  them  by  the  gills.  Under 
favorable  conditions,  diatoms  are  collected  a  few  at  a 
time,  and  are  sent  across  the  palp  ridges  to  the  mouth. 
In  muddy  water  the  particles  increase  in  number  until 
the  palps  respond  by  diverting  everything  received  to 
the  outgoing  tracts. 

This  may  be  proved  experimentally,  though  the 
operator  must  exercise  care  and  skill.  Very  fine  grains 
of  carmine,  dropped  on  gills  or  palps  of  any  bivalve,  in 
very  small  quantities,  may  be  observed,  with  the  aid  of  a 
glass,  to  pass  into  the  mouth.  This  simulates  conditions 
favorable  for  feeding,  when  diatoms  are  steadily 
strained,  a  few  at  a  time,  from  clear  water.  When 


62  Our  Food  Mollusks 

larger  quantities  of  carmine  grains  are  used,  their  num- 
ber finally  causes  the  palps  to  reject  them,  the  ciliatet. 
margins  often  being  folded  over  so  as  to  sweep  clean 
even  the  striated  surfaces  of  the  palps,  if  carmine  has 
fallen  directly  on  them,  and  they  are  able  to  clean  them- 
selves in  still  another  way  that  cannot  be  described  here. 


FIG.    15.— Cilia  currents   on   mantle    (m)    and  palp    (/>)    of  the 
oyster    (Ostrea  virginica). 

The  general  direction  of  currents  and  the  possible 
routes  for  food  or  mud  in  the  mantle  chamber  of  the 
oyster  will  be  understood  without  description  by  a  study 
of  Figures  3  and  15.  The  gills  are  represented  as  hav- 
ing been  removed  in  the  latter  figure,  their  former  line 
of  attachment  to  the  mantle  being  shown  by  the  line  C. 
It  will  be  seen  that  undesirable  matter  is  cast  out  of  the 
body  over  the  edges  of  the  mantle  between  the  points  A 
and  B,  and  that  this  is  the  most  favorable  region  for  such 
a  discharge.  If  farther  back,  as  below  C,  this  would 


Ciliary  Mechanisms  63 

have  to  be  accomplished  directly  against  the  incurrent 
stream  of  water.  The  palps  function,  as  in  Venus,  in 
disposing  of  material  that  they  receive  from  the  gills. 

There  is  a  widespread  belief  that  oysters  and  clams 
may  be  fattened  with  such  substances  as  corn-meal. 
Even  those  well  acquainted  with  the  subject  often  have 
supposed  that  bivalves  had  the  power  of  taking  such  ma- 
terial into  the  mouth.  The  following  is  a  statement 
on  the  subject  published  in  an  authoritative  and  valuable 
guide  to  oyster  culture : — 

"  Experiments  have  been  made  with  a  view  to  feeding 
the  adult  oysters  upon  corn-meal  or  some  similar  sub- 
stance, but  such  attempts  have  been  of  no  practical 
value.  There  is  no  doubt  that  they  would  eat  corn- 
meal  or  any  other  substance  'in  a  sufficiently  fine  state 
of  division  to  be  acted  upon  by  the  cilia.  The  oyster 
is  incapable  of  making  a  selection  of  its  food,  and  prob- 
ably any  substance,  nutritious,  inert,  or  injurious,  would 
be  swept  into  the  mouth  with  complete  indifference  ex- 
cept as  to  the  result.  Corn-meal  and  similar  substances 
would  doubtless  be  nutritious,  but  their  use  must  be  so 
wasteful  that  the  value  of  the  meal  would  be  greater 
than  that  of  the  oyster  produced." 

In  view  of  the  account  of  the  feeding  habits  of 
bivalves  here  given,  these  statements  require  some  inter- 
pretation. Corn-meal  ground  to  microscopically  small 
particles  might  be  taken  into  the  mouth  of  oyster  or  clam 
if  brought  to  the  gill  surfaces  a  very  little  at  a  time,  but 
even  in  a  laboratory  experiment,  it  would  not  be  easy  to 
arrange  these  conditions  properly.  In  such  experiments 
as  those  to  which  the  writer  of  the  quoted  paragraph 
refers,  in  which  corn-meal,  as  ordinarily  ground,  is 
merely  thrown  into  the  water  over  the  bivalves,  or  even 


64  Our  Food  Mollusks 

in  cases  in  which  it  is  placed  directly  in  the  mantle  cham- 
ber, a  very  small  amount  of  it,  if  any,  would  ever  reach 
the  mouth  opening.  Moreover,  it  has, been  found  that 
clams  refuse  to  allow  such  substances  as  very  finely 
ground  fish  or  shrimps  even  to  enter  the  mantle  chamber 
through  the  siphons.  Mere  contact  of  such  materials 
with  the  sensory  end  of  the  incur  rent  siphon  causes 
violent  contractions  of  the  adductor  muscles,  and  of  the 
siphon  also. 

Though  the  same  general  plan  is  followed  in  all,  there 
are  many  curious  modifications  of  these  ciliary  mecha- 
nisms that  are  characteristic  of  different  bivalves,  and 
they  occur  on  palps,  mantle,  or  gills.  One  of  the  most 
astonishingly  ingenious  (if  the  word  may  be  permitted) 
of  these,  is  an  arrangement  on  all  the  gill  surfaces  of  the 
scallops,  by  means  of  which  foreign  particles,  strained 
from  the  water,  are  automatically  directed  toward  the 
palps  and  the  mouth,  when  few,  and  upon  outgoing 
tracts  whenever  they  increase  to  a  certain  number. 

To  understand  the  operation  of  this  mechanism,  it 
should  be  noticed  that  the  gill  surfaces  are  thrown  into 
marked  folds,  as  described  in  the  chapter  on  anatomy. 
These  folds  extend  from  the  bases  to  the  margins  of  the 
gills,  and  between  them  are  deep  grooves  (Figure  6). 
The  surface  cilia  of  the  filaments  near  the  middle  of  the 
folds  lash  toward  the  free  margins  of  the  gills,  while 
those  in  the  grooves  between  the  folds  lash  in  the  op- 
posite direction,  toward  the  gill  bases  (Figure  16). 
When  the  stream  that  rushes  between  the  filaments  into 
the  interior  of  the  gill  brings  particles  to  its  surface  a 
few  at  a  time,  the  majority  of  them  fall  into  the  grooves 
(g),  and  are  then  carried  to  the  base  of  the  gill.  Here 
they  go  to  a  ciliated  tract  leading  to  the  palps  and 


Ciliary  Mechanisms 


mouth  (in).  This  is  the 
normal  food  collecting  pro- 
cess. 

But  when  much  material 
arrives  on  the  gill,  it  not 
only  falls  into  the  grooves, 
but  adheres  to  the  surfaces 
of  the  folds  (/)  as  well. 
Everywhere  it  seems  to 
stimulate  a  copious  secretion 
of  mucus,  and  the  whole 
mass,  both  in  the  grooves 
and  on  the  folds,  becomes 
continuous.  Now  begins  a 
struggle  between  opposing 
tracts.  The  material  in  the 
grooves  is  pushed  toward  the 
base  and  that  on  the  folds 
toward  the  free  edge  of  the 
gill,  as  at  b.  The  tension  on 
the  string  of  mucus  becomes 
so  great  that  finally — and  in- 
variably— it  is  lifted  up  out 
of  the  grooves  and  all  is 
borne  to  the  edge  of  the  gill 
(c).  Now,  too,  the  whole 
gill  is  responding  to  the 
stimulus  of  a  large  quantity 
of  foreign  matter  on  its  sur- 
face, by  writhing  and  sway- 
ing from  side  to  side. 

If  it  is  the  inner  gill  that 
has  made  this  collection, 


FIG.  16.— Three  folds  b!  the 
surface  of  the  gill  of  the 
scallop  (Pecten  irradians) 
to  illustrate  automatic  action 
of  cilia  in  bearing  small 
quantities  of  material  to  the 
mouth  pn  the  tract  marked 
?n,  and  large  quantities  away 
from  the  mouth  and  to  the 
mantle  wall  from  the  edge  of 
the  gill. 


66  Our  Food  Mollusks 

it  transfers  its  mass  to  the  outer,  or  casts  it  off  into 
the  mantle  chamber.  The  outer  gill  often  touches  the 
mantle,  the  cilia  of  which  relieve  it  of  its  burden  and 
carry  it  away. 

Thus  the  gills  as  well  as  the  palps  of  Pecten  reject 
material  when  it  is  too  abundant,  but  the  process  in  this 
case  is  purely  automatic.  The  course  taken  by  foreign 
matter  is  determined  by  its  volume,  and  so  certainly  that 
the  experimenter  is  soon  able,  when  allowing  carmine 
particles  to  settle  on  the  gill,  to  predict  which  path  they 
will  follow  on  reaching  its  surface. 

There  are  few  known  mechanical  contrivances  of 
animal  bodies  more  wonderful  than  this  self-operating 
mechanism  of  the  Pecten  gill.  Cilia,  in  all  animals 
above  the  Protozoa,  or  single  celled  forms,  lash  only  in 
one  direction.  Yet  here  is  a  ciliated  surface  that  auto- 
matically selects  from  the  water  what  usually  is  suitable 
for  food,  and  rejects  that  which  is  not  suitable,  carrying 
the  first  toward  the  mouth,  and  the  other  in  the  opposite 
direction,  the  matter  being  determined  wholly  by  the 
quantity  of  the  material. 

It  is  possible  here  to  make  only  the  brief  statement 
that  some  bivalves  develop  special  organs  the  ciliated  sur- 
faces of  which  are  constructed  to  cope  with  peculiar 
conditions  of  the  environment.  Such,  for  example,  is  a 
filmy  membrane  that  grows  out  from  the  posterior  sur- 
face of  the  body  wall  in  a  species  of  Pholas  in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  This  organ  rolls  itself  into  the  form 
of  an  inverted  trough,  and,  collecting  mud  from  the  sides 
of  the  body,  carries  it  under  cover,  directly  against  the 
incurrent  stream,  out  into — and  perhaps  entirely 
through — the  lower  siphon  tube  to  the  exterior.  This 
special  apparatus  is  apparently  necessary  in  this  creature 


Ciliary  Mechanisms  67 

that  lives  in  water  often  very  heavily  laden  with  mud. 
One  might  search  far  among  organisms  to  find  a  con- 
trivance more  strikingly  ingenious,  and  its  utility  is  so 
perfectly  evident  that  it  would  no  doubt  have  enrap- 
tured Paley,  had  he  possessed  knowledge  of  it. 


CHAPTER  V 
OYSTER  CULTURE  IN  EUROPE  AND  JAPAN 

EUROPEAN  OYSTER  CULTURE 

HERE  is  abundant  evidence  that  marine  mol- 
lusks  were  extensively  used  for  food  by  man 
before  historic  times.  In  many  parts  of  the 
world  ancient  shell  heaps,  some  of  them  of 
immense  proportions,  are  found  near  waters  that  are 
still  capable  of  producing  the  same  forms.  These  are  so 
disposed  and  so  constructed  that  it  is  certain  that  they 
are  not  natural  accumulations  on  what  was  formerly 
ocean  bottom,  but  the  work  of  human  hands.  This  con- 
clusion is  substantiated  by  the  fact  that  among  the  shells 
of  clams  or  oysters  or  marine  snails,  the  bones  of  aquatic 
and  land  animals  are  often  found,  together  with  primi- 
tive weapons  or  domestic  implements.  Such  shell  heaps 
are  common  on  our  Atlantic  coast,  and  on  some  of  the 
islands  off  the  coast  of  California,  there  are  mounds  of 
shells  of  great  extent  that  contain  mortars  and  pestles, 
the  bones  of  fishes,  seals,  whales,  and  implements  and 
ornaments  of  various  kinds.  Indeed,  on  the  island  of 
San  Nicholas  there  is  said  to  have  existed  as  late  as  the 
nineteenth  century  a  primitive  tribe  of  people  living  after 
the  simple  fashion  of  hundreds  of  generations  of  an- 
cestors, and  making  the  last  contribution  to  vast  shell 
accumulations.  Nothing  in  history  is  more  ghastly  than 

68 


Oyster  Culture  in  Europe  and  Japan       69 

the  destruction  of  that  race,  nor  more  strange  and 
pathetic  than  the  rescue,  after  eighteen  years  of  solitude, 
of  its  single  survivor. 

There  are  two  species  of  oysters  native  to  European 
waters.  The  flat  oyster,  Ostrea  edulis,  is  found  on  the 
northern  shores.  It  is 
rounded  and  flat,  and 
its  shell  has  a  diameter 
of  but  two  or  three 
inches  (Figure  17). 
It  is  hermaphroditic — 
that  is,  both  male  and 
female  organs  are  de- 
veloped in  each  indi- 
vidual. 

Its  cousin,  the  Por- 
tuguese oyster,  O.  an- 
gulata,  found  on  the 
southern  shores,  is  not 
so  highly  esteemed  as 
the  flat  oyster.  It  is  said  naturally  to  be  elongated,  even 
when  not  crowded  in  clusters.  It  is  very  small  (Figure 
18).  The  sexes  are  separate. 

These  oysters  have  been  cultivated  since  ancient  times. 
Pliny,  who  may  be  called  the  father  of  a  class  of  dis- 
credited nature  observers  that  still  flourishes,  states  that 
at  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century  oysters  were 
artificially  reared  with  great  success  in  Lake  Lucrin;  but 
there  is  evidence  to  show  that  he  had  in  this  case  been  cor- 
rectly informed.  M.  Coste,  a  French  naturalist,  and  the 
originator  of  modern  oyster  culture  in  Europe,  describes 
two  funeral  vases,  one  found  at  Pouille  and  the  other 
near  Rome,  which  prove  that  oyster  embryos  were  col- 


FIG.  17. — European  flat  oyster  (Ostrea 
edulis).  (This  and  the  following 
figure  are  modifications  of  figures 
by  Professor  Bashford  Dean.) 


Our  Food  Mollusks 


lected  and  reared  in  ponds  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  for 
on  these  vases  are  designs  in  perspective,  representing 
oyster  ponds  and  objects  used  in  the  capture  of  oysters. 
There  are  also  inscriptions  that 
make  the  meaning  of  the  artist  cer- 
tain. The  simple  methods  of  oys- 
ter culture  in  use  to-day  at  Lake 
Fusaro  and  the  Gulf  of  Tarente 
are  apparently  identical  with  those 
of  the  Romans  of  two  thousand 
years  ago.  Stakes  are  driven  into 
the  bottom  enclosing  small  rectan- 
gular spaces.  These  are  connected 
by  means  of  ropes  from  which  are 
suspended  bundles  of  twigs.  On 
this  brush  the  swimming  young  of 
the  oyster  attach.  They  are  left 
in  this  position  to  grow  to  mar- 
ketable size,  or  are  removed  and 
spread  out  in  wicker  baskets, 
which  also  are  suspended  from 
ropes.  As  tides  are  not  great, 
they  are  seldom  exposed. 
Oyster  culture,  as  it  is  carried  on  in  various  parts  of 
the  world  to-day,  is  everywhere  essentially  the  same 
process,  but  what  may  be  called  modern  methods  are  of 
independent  origin  in  Europe,  in  Japan,  and  in  our  own 
country.  During  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, natural  beds  in  Europe  and  America  were  still  large 
enough  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  markets,  but  in  the 
last  fifty  years  very  rapid  social  changes  have  occurred, 
one  result  being  that  many  of  the  luxuries  of  previous 
times  became  common  necessities,  especially  in  our  own 


FIG.  18.  —  Portugese 
oyster  (  O  s  t  r  e  a 
augulata). 


Oyster  Culture  in  Europe  and  Japan       71 

country.  Among  other  things,  the  demand  for  oysters 
increased  enormously.  This  soon  resulted  in  the  de- 
struction of  natural  oyster  beds,  and  the  development  of 
artificial  means  of  supplying  the  market. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  natural 
oyster  beds  were  numerous  on  certain  parts  of  the 
French  and  English  coasts.  The  history  of  their  de- 
struction is  valuable,  because  it  shows  how  entirely  mis- 
leading statistics  may  become  in  matters  of  this  kind. 
In  Cancale  Bay,  on  the  northern  coast  of  France,  com- 
paratively few  oysters  were  taken  during  the  last  of  the 
Napoleonic  wars,  and  the  beds,  having  been  undisturbed, 
had  become  very  extensive.  In  1817  dredging  began 
again  without  interruption  from  English  war  vessels, 
and  during  that  year,  great  numbers  of  oysters  were 
marketed  from  these  beds.  Year  after  year  they  in- 
creased. Every  one  connected  with  the  industry  • 
came  to  regard  the  natural  beds  as  inexhaustible.  A  dec- 
ade passed,  then  a  second  and  a  third,  and  each  year  the 
supply  was  greater  than  the  last,  until,  in  1843,  seventy 
million  oysters  were  marketed.  If,  during  that  time,  any 
warning  voice  had  been  raised,  it  certainly  would  not 
have  been  heard.  If  any  one  had  been  able  to  attract  at- 
tention by  his  statement  that  the  beds  were  becoming  ex- 
hausted, he  would  have  been  effectually  silenced  by  the 
statistics.  It  would  have  been  useless  to  show  that  each 
year  the  number  of  fishermen  was  greater,  and  that  the 
time  and  labor  required  in  obtaining  a  boat-load  was 
rapidly  lengthening.  The  significant  thing  to  consumers 
would  have  been  that  oysters  in  the  market  were  increas- 
ing in  numbers. 

This  has  been  the  experience  in  our  own  country,  where 
the  people  may  control  such  conditions  more  directly, 


72  Our  Food  Mollusks 

and  perhaps  more  easily,  than  would  have  been  possible 
in  the  monarchical  France  of  that  day.  The  marvelous 
natural  wealth  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  as  well  as  that  of 
other  great  natural  oyster  fields,  has  been  nearly  de- 
stroyed, and  the  naturalist  who  was  able  to  predict  the 
present  condition  with  perfect  certainty,  had  studied  the 
natural  beds  and  the  habits  and  life  history  of  the  oyster 
while  the  public  studied  the  display  in  the  fish  markets, 
and,  perhaps,  statistical  statements  concerning  the  num- 
ber of  oysters  brought  to  them.  Fortunately  artificial 
beds  have  proved  to  be  much  more  prolific  than  the 
natural  bottoms,  but  in  nearly  all  cases,  oyster  culture 
has  been  resorted  to  only  after  the  natural  supply  has 
been  practically  destroyed. 

The  inevitable  change  came  to  the  Cancale  Bay  fish- 
eries in  the  middle  of  the  century.  From  that  time  the 
supply  failed  with  great  rapidity,  as  it  usually  does  in 
such  cases,  until,  in  the  year  1868,  only  about  a  million 
oysters  were  obtained,  where,  for  so  many  years,  more 
than  fifty  times  that  number  were  dredged  each  season. 
The  natural  beds  had  been  practically  destroyed  through 
excessive  dredging. 

A  similar  destruction  occurred  at  about  the  same  time 
in  the  districts  of  Marennes,  Rochefort,  the  island  of 
Oleron  and  elsewhere  on  the  French  coast,  and  also  in 
the  oyster  bays  of  England.  Everywhere  the  cause  was 
the  same. 

For  such  a  condition  of  affairs  two  remedies  are  al- 
ways possible.  The  supply  may  again  be  increased  by 
enforcing  a  long  close  season,  or  a  new  and  artificial  in- 
dustry may  be  developed.  Obviously  the  latter  is  the 
only  practicable  course  to  pursue.  All  of  the  more 
valuable  sources  of  the  world's  food  are  founded  on  arti- 


Oyster  Culture  in  Europe  and  Japan      73 

ficial  propagation.  Wheat,  corn,  and  many  other  do- 
mesticated food  plants,  do  not  even  exist  in  a  wild  state. 
Under  domestication  there  is  almost  no  limit  but  land 
area  to  the  possibilities  of  their  increase.  The  world's 
supply  of  beef,  pork,  and  mutton,  being  under  man's 
control,  is  limited  only  by  the  amount  of  grain  and  hay 
that  he  is  able  to  raise  for  feed.  Why  should  he  not 
also  be  able  to  control  many  of  the  animals  of  the  sea, 
that  bears  a  vast  supply  of  nourishment  on  which  they 
may  thrive? 

France  adopted  a  wise  policy.  Dredging  was  greatly 
restricted,  but  investigations  were  begun  in  the  hope  that 
the  beds  might  be  reclaimed  by  artificial  means.  As  a 
first  step,  M.  de  Bon,  Commissioner  of  Marine,  was  di- 
rected, in  1853,  to  attempt  to  restock  the  old  beds  of  the 
Ranee  and  Saint  Malo.  This  he  did  by  transplanting 
oysters  from  the  Bay  of  Cancale.  He  was  an  acute  and 
accurate  observer,  and  able  to  detect  the  significance  of 
what  he  saw.  The  transplanted  oysters  not  only  flour- 
ished, but  some  of  them,  placed  on  beaches  where  they 
were  exposed  at  low  tide,  were  able  to  reproduce  them- 
selves as  when  continually  immersed.  It  then  occurred 
to  De  Bon  that  if  the  young  oysters,  or  "  spat,"  could 
be  collected  here  and  placed  on  favorable  and  con- 
venient bottoms,  the  laborious  process  of  dredging  could 
be  done  away  with  altogether,  and  that  oysters  could  be 
reared  without  the  use  of  boats,  and  marketed  at 
pleasure. 

It  was  a  great  idea,  and  De  Bon  at  once  began  to 
devise  some  feasible  means  of  capturing  the  swimming 
oyster  embryos.  Constructing  platforms  of  planks, 
some  inches  above  the  parent  oysters  on  the  bottom,  he 
covered  them  with  bundles  of  twigs,  in  the  hope  that  the 


74  Our  Food  Mollusks 

swimming  young  might  find  in  this  brush  a  suitable  sub- 
stance on  which  to  attach.  This  hope  was  fulfilled,  the 
experiment  became  widely  known,  and  the  beginnings  of 
modern  oyster  culture  had  been  made  in  Europe. 

At  the  time  of  these  observations,  M.  Coste,  Professor 
of  Embryology  in  the  College  of  France,  became  greatly 
interested  in  the  ancient  and  primitive  culture  methods 
which  he  had  examined  at  Lake  Fusaro,  in  Italy.  He 
seems  to  have  been  imaginative,  energetic,  optimistic,  and 
persuasive.  He  conceived  the  idea  of  transporting  this 
obscure  Italian  industry  to  the  depleted  shores  of  his  own 
country,  and  attracted  a  great  deal  of  attention  by  the 
publication  of  his  views  in  1855.  He  suggested  means 
similar  to  those  employed  in  Italy  for  collecting  the 
"  spat,"  and  proposed  that  a  trial  of  them  be  made  in  the 
salt  lakes  in  the  south  of  France. 

He  succeeded  in  interesting  Emperor  Napoleon  III, 
who  two  years  later  commissioned  him  to  make  experi- 
ments along  the  lines  which  he  had  suggested.  On  mak- 
ing a  tour  of  the  French  coast,  he  received  a  great  sur- 
prise on  viewing  the  work  of  De  Bon.  There,  before 
his  eyes,  were  flourishing  oysters,  not  only  transplanted, 
but  reproducing  themselves  in  an  exposed  position  be- 
tween tide  lines,  and  this  he  had  formerly  declared  could 
not  occur.  With  a  mind  fired  by  the  possibilities  re- 
vealed, he  published  a  report  to  the  Emperor,  in  which 
he  drew  a  vivid  and  optimistic  picture  of  the  entire  coast 
of  France  converted  into  a  great  oyster  garden  and 
bearing  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  food. 

M.  Coste  now  constructed  beds  at  various  points  in  the 
Bay  of  Saint  Brieuc,  deposited  mature  oysters  over  shells 
previously  spread  on  the  bottom  to  serve  as  collectors, 
and  suspended  bundles  of  brush  for  the  same  purpose. 


Oyster  Culture  in  Europe  and  Japan      75 

At  the  end  of  the  spawning  season,  these  collectors  were 
well  covered  with  young  oysters.  He  now  began  in 
earnest  the  task  of  reclaiming  the  coast,  and  large  areas 
at  Toulon,  Brest,  and  Arcachon,  were  covered  with 
oysters,  many  of  them  imported  from  England  for  the 
purpose.  Now,  too,  stimulated  by  the  success  of  Coste, 
private  interests  began  rapidly  to  develop  the  new  in- 
dustry, especially  on  the  coasts  of  Normandy  and  Brit- 
tany. Beds  were  constructed  in  many  localities,  and  the 
work  proceeded  with  great  enthusiasm. 

In  many  places  the  initial  successes  were  gratifying. 
It  became  certain  that  oysters  transplanted  from  natural 
beds  to  other  bottoms  would  grow  well,  in  the  majority 
of  cases,  though  often  they  did  not  spawn.  So  much 
had  been  gained,  however,  that  for  three  or  four  years  a 
spirit  of  great  expectation  prevailed. 

Then,  in  the  following  years,  came  reverses,  dis- 
appointments, failures,  and  disasters.  Fishermen  de- 
spoiled the  natural  beds.  Storms  scattered  the  oysters 
that  had  been  planted  in  the  shallow  waters.  The  beds 
of  Saint  Brieuc,  especially,  suffered  from  wave  action, 
the  brush  collectors  being  torn  from  the  bottoms,  broken, 
and  swept  away.  The  natural  beds  had  become  so 
greatly  reduced  in  supplying  breeding  oysters  that 
regions  formerly  producing  every  year  a  good  set  of 
young  became  barren.  Apparently  the  brilliant  plan  of 
Coste  had  failed.  Discredited,  disappointed,  and  finally 
completely  discouraged,  he  died,  perhaps  not  dreaming 
that  in  time — not  quickly,  as  he  had  hoped,  but  in  the 
course  of  normal  growth — the  conditions  which  he  had 
predicted  were,  in  large  part,  to  be  realized. 

One  fact  of  importance,  underlying  these  events,  has 
received  little  or  no  attention.  It  is  not  simply  that  the 


76  Our  Food  Mollusks 

life  and  experience  of  Coste  afford  a  beautiful  example 
of  the  dangers  of  optimism,  though  that  is  an  important 
subject  on  which  much  might  be  said.  It  is  that  the 
most  important  element  in  this  disaster  to  an  industry 
which,  with  rare  good  fortune,  had  begun  so  auspi- 
ciously, was  the  failure  to  study  the  oyster  from  a 
biological  point  of  view  at  the  very  beginning.  Had 
Coste  known  that  the  European  oyster  is  able  to  re- 
produce only  in  water  of  a  certain  definite  degree 
of  salinity,  or  density,  and  that  such  waters  are  to  be 
found  in  comparatively  few  localities  on  the  French 
coast;  had  he  discovered  that  the  oysters'  food  is  abun- 
dant only  in  certain  localities,  where  peculiar  conditions 
are  necessary  for  its  production;  had  he  investigated  the 
bearing  of  tide  currents  on  the  distribution  of  food  and 
of  oyster  embryos;  in  short,  had  he  known  the  oyster 
in  relation  to  its  surroundings,  the  greatest  of  his  dis- 
appointments would  never  have  occurred,  and  the  in- 
dustry itself,  instead  of  being  discredited  and  retarded 
by  arousing  public  suspicion  against  claims  made  in  the 
name  of  science,  would  have  grown  without  loss  of  time 
and  wealth. 

The  present  application  of  these  reflections  is  to  those 
well-meaning  critics  of  our  institutions  founded  for  the 
purpose  of  promoting  a  scientific  study  of  animals  and 
plants  useful  to  man.  Our  state  agricultural  schools, 
and  our  state  and  national  fish  commissions,  often  pub- 
lish at  public  expense,  technical  papers  that  seemingly 
have  no  bearing  on  any  economic  problem.  This  is 
sometimes  the  subject  of  adverse  comment,  but  not  so 
frequently  as  in  the  past.  It  is  cause  for  congratulation 
that  the  public  is  learning  that  a  detailed  knowledge  of 
the  nature  of  organisms  and  their  relations  to  their  sur- 


Oyster  Culture  in  Europe  and  Japan       77 

roundings  is  the  first  logical  and  necessary  step  toward 
their  control  by  man.  We  are  beginning  to  give  these 
institutions  credit  for  the  great  benefits  that  have  been 
derived  from  their  researches. 

After  its  disheartening  experience,  the  French  in- 
dustry began  to  revive.  One  extremely  important 
feature  of  its  subsequent  growth  was  the  lease  of  oyster 
grounds  by  the  state  to  individuals.  What  had  for- 
merly been  public  property,  now  came  under  the  control 
of  private  interests,  ambitious  to  make  it  as  productive 
as  possible.  These  also  were  afforded  protection,  and  as 
a  consequence,  capital  was  invested  in  large  amounts. 
That  this  was  the  only  wise  course  to  pursue,  has  since 
been  proved  in  every  country  in  which  an  oyster  industry 
has  been  developed,  and  it  is  because  such  a  policy  has 
not  yet  been  adopted  by  any  of  our  Atlantic  states 
toward  the  clam  industry,  that  it  has  declined  into  its 
present  state.  Common  sense  indicates  and  the  histor- 
ical record  proves  that  this  is  one  of  the  fundamental  re- 
quirements for  the  artificial  rearing  of  any  form. 

Slowly  the  important  facts  concerning  the  conditions 
necessary  for  the  increase  of  the  oyster  were  learned  and 
applied.  It  was  found  that  a  method,  successful  in  one 
locality,  might  not  succeed  in  another.  Each  region 
had  its  own  peculiar  problems,  and  these  were  solved  one 
after  another  by  patient  experiment.  It  is  recorded  that 
in  1871,  at  Arcachon,  1,450  acres  of  public  ground  were 
leased  in  private  holdings.  In  1875,  there  were  2,434 
concessions,  covering  6,625  acres.  Their  number  in- 
creased at  various  points,  and  to-day  the  industry  is  a 
very  extensive  one. 

French  culture  methods  of  the  present  are  more  com- 
plicated than  those  employed  in  our  own  country.  This 


78  Our  Food  Mollusks 

is  especially  true  of  the  means  used  for  the  capture  of 
the  swimming  embryos.  There  are  but  two  places  on  the 
French  coast  where  oysters  spawn  regularly  in  abund- 
ance. Here,  at  Arcachon  and  Auray,  attention  is  given 
chiefly  to  the  collection  of  the  young,  which  are  sent  to 
various  parts  of  the  coast  to  be  reared  in  what  are  called 
parks — walled  areas  between  tide  lines. 

The  collection  of  young  oysters  is  a  very  much  more 
serious  problem  in  European  waters  than  in  our  own. 
There  the  great  salinity  of  the  water  restrains  the  repro- 
ductive process,  while  in  almost  all  localities  where  our 
oysters  are  found,  they  are  extremely  prolific,  and  it  is 
interesting  to  observe  that  when  they  are  transported  to 
European  waters,  they  also  become  sterile.  The  water 
is  very  muddy  on  European  shores.  On  settling,  this 
mud  forms  so  soft  a  bottom  that. young  oysters  sinking 
on  it  perish  at  once.  A  hard  object  to  be  used  as  a 
collector  is  also  very  quickly  coated  with  mud  and  slime, 
so  that  an  oyster  embryo  that  has  succeeded  in  at- 
taching, is  in  danger  of  being  lost  even  here.  After  this 
coat  has  formed  on  the  collector,  attachment  is  impossi- 
ble. For  this  reason,  the  American  method  of  covering 
the  bottom  with  clean  shells  to  capture  the  spat  would 
be  relatively  ineffective. 

Where  waters  are  least  muddy,  bundles  of  twigs  are 
employed,  after  the  ancient  practice  of  the  Romans.  In 
shallow  water,  where  these  can  readily  be  handled,  some 
of  the  sediment  may  be  washed  off,  giving  sufficient  time 
for  attachment.  If  oysters  are  well  spaced  on  the 
branches,  the  bundle  may  be  allowed  to  remain  sus- 
pended during  the  period  of  growth.  If  they  are  closely 
set,  the  twigs  may  be  broken  into  small  pieces  and  spread 
on  some  hard  bottom,  or  in  racks  that  have  been  pre- 


Oyster  Culture  in  Europe  and  Japan      79 

pared  for  them.  Board  platforms,  placed  one  above  an- 
other with  slight  spaces  between,  are  also  used  in  the 
collection  of  spat.  After  the  young  adhering  to  these 
have  attained  a  sufficient  size,  they  are  removed  by  means 
of  a  knife. 

Brush  and  boards,  however,  will  not  serve  in  most 
localities,  because  both  so  rapidly  become  coated  with 
slime.  In  the  development  of  the  industry  it  became 
necessary  to  devise  some  other  form  of  collector  that 
would  overcome  this  difficulty.  The  object  that  proved 
most  successful  was  a  roofing  tile.  The  form  of  tile 
now  commonly  in  use  is  a  little  more  than  a  foot  in 
length,  about  six  inches  wide,  and  has  a  slight  arc  of 
about  one-fifth  of  a  circle.  When  these  are  placed  in 
the  water  with  the  hollow  or  concave  side  down,  very 
little  slime  attaches  to  that  surface,  which  is  thus  favor- 
able for  attachment  (Figure  19). 

The  young  oyster  is  very  firmly  cemented  to  the  ob- 
ject to  which  it  is  attached.  To  remove  it  from  a  tile 
would  usually  necessitate  the  breaking  of  the  shell,  and 
this  would  result  in  its  death.  To  allow  it  to  remain  on 
the  tile  to  grow  to  marketable  size,  would  be  impracti- 
cable for  several  reasons,  chief  among  which  is  that  so 
many  young  usually  attach  to  a  single  tile  that  they 
would  crowd  each  other,  and  the  growth  of  all  would  be 
interfered  with.  When  tile  collectors  were  first  used, 
therefore,  they  were  broken  into  pieces  after  the  attach- 
ment of  the  young,  and  in  such  a  way  that  an  oyster  was 
borne  on  each  piece.  This  required  much  skill  and  labor, 
and  the  destruction  of  the  tiles  made  the  process  ex- 
pensive. 

After  a  time  an  extremely  ingenious  plan  was  devised 
which  made  the  tile  collector  almost  perfect  for 


8o  Our  Food  Mollusks 

European  oyster  beds.  The  idea  was  to  cover  the  tiles 
with  a  crust  of  some  substance  that  could  easily  be  re- 
moved after  the  oysters  had  become  fixed  to  it.  After 
some  experimenting,  a  cement  was  invented  that  an- 
swered all  requirements,  and  it  is  in  use  all  along  the 
coast  to-day.  It  is  a  mixture  of  quick-lime  and  sea 
water  to  which  is  added  enough  fine  sand  or  mud  to  give 
it  the  consistency  of  thick  cream.  Into  this,  dry  tiles  are 
dipped,  and  coated  with  a  layer  of  the  mixture  having  a 
thickness  of  about  a  millimeter.  The  coat  is  thoroughly 
dried  before  the  collector  is  placed  in  the  water.  After 
several  weeks  of  immersion,  it  softens  somewhat  by  the 
action  of  the  sea  water,  and,  though  still  firm  enough  to 
adhere  while  the  tile  is  being  handled,  it  flakes  off 
readily  in  the  process  of  removing 'the  young  oysters. 
This  is  effected  by  means  of  a  flat  knife-blade.  When 
the  crust  bearing  the  spat  has  thus  been  removed,  the  tiles 
are  stored  to  be  coated  and  used  again  during  the  next 
spawning  season.  In  this  way  the  same  collectors  are 
used  for  several  years.  At  Arcachon  and  Auray  it  is 
estimated  that  each  tile  annually  affords  attachment  to 
about  two  hundred  oysters. 

The  spawning  season  is  not  sharply  limited.  As  in 
the  case  of  the  American  oyster,  some  young  appear  in 
the  water  at  almost  all  times  of  the  year.  But  the  great 
majority  are  produced  in  the  early  summer,  and  it  is  a 
matter  of  great  importance  to  the  French  culturist  to 
determine  the  time  of  their  appearance.  If  tiles  were 
immersed  for  any  length  of  time  before  spawning  be- 
gan, even  their  concave  surfaces  would  become  so  con- 
taminated with  slime,  that  attachment  would  be  inter- 
fered with.  Salinity  of  the  water,  temperature,  and 
other  conditions  that  vary  from  year  to  year,  determine 


Oyster  Culture  in  Europe  and  Japan       81 

the  spawning  time,  so  that  there  can  be  no  set  date  for 
the  laying  of  the  collectors.  By  close  observation,  the 
most  favorable  time  is  determined  each  year  for  the  cap- 
ture of  the  maximum  number.  This  is  usually  near  the 
end  of  July,  and  the  spat  continue  to  appear  in  numbers 
until  the  middle  of  August. 

Two  hundred  small  oysters  might  perhaps  be  left  with 
safety  on  the  surface  of  a  single  tile  during  the  winter 
months  when  growth  is  not  rapid.  Indeed,  this  is  often 
done  in  the  warmer  southern  waters;  but  on  the  north 
coast  there  is  always  great  danger  from  frost.  As  the 
collectors  are  so  placed  that  they  are  exposed  at  low  tide, 
many  of  the  young  would  be  killed  by  the  cold;  so  in  Oc- 
tober, when  the  shells  have  attained  a  diameter  of  half 
or  three-quarters  of  an  inch,  they  are  removed  from  the 
tiles  and  shipped  to  the  eleveurs,  or  culturists,  who  place 
them  in  water  deep  enough  to  preserve  them  during  the 
winter. 

The  young  are  hardy  enough  to  endure  a  journey  last- 
ing three  or  four  days,  especially  at  this  time  of  the  year. 
From  the  collecting  places,  they  are  sent  to  all  parts  of 
the  French  coast,  as  well  as  to  neighboring  countries. 
Great  numbers  are  sold  in  England,  where,  however,  the 
fact  is  concealed  as  carefully  as  possible,  because,  like 
any  other  people,  the  English  consider  their  own 
products  superior  to  others.  The  collection  and  sale 
of  spat  is  so  extensive  as  to  be  an  important  industry  in 
itself,  and  this  is  a  feature  of  oyster  culture  that  should 
be  much  more  extensively  developed  in  our  own  country. 

An  American  oyster  culturist  would  probably  be  ap- 
palled by  the  adverse  conditions  that  confront  the  in- 
dustry in  European  waters.  He  himself  has  much  to 
contend  against,  but  his  task  is  not  difficult  in  compari- 


82  Our  Food  Mollusks 

son  with  that  of  the  European  culturist.  There  is  one 
fundamental  difference  between  the  two  industries.  In 
America,  except  on  the  Pacific  coast,  oyster  grounds  are 
all  below  the  tide  lines,  and  some  are  in  very  deep  water. 
In  Europe  they  lie  between  the  tide  lines.  Deep  water 
farming  is  not  possible  on  the  coast  of  Europe,  but  there 
is  no  natural  condition  that  would  prevent  the  employ- 
ment of  European  methods  here. 

But  the  time  can  not  yet  be  seen  when  it  may  be  profit- 
able to  utilize  the  beaches  for  oyster  culture  in  America, 
though  the  imagination  is  excited  when  one  views  the 
immense  wastes  of  salt  marsh  bounding  much  of  our 
Atlantic  coast,  that  might,  if  expense  were  no  object, 
probably  successfully  be  converted  into  innumerable 
oyster  ponds.  Whether  or  not  the  utilization  of  our 
marsh  lands  will  ever  be  attempted,  the  difficulties  that 
have  been  overcome  by  the  European  culturist  are  very 
interesting.  He  leases  a  plot  of  ground  on  a  flat  that 
is  exposed  for  a  considerable  period  each  day  at  low 
water,  and  in  most  cases  much  labor  is  necessary  to  pre- 
pare it  before  it  can  be  used  for  rearing  young  oysters. 
Enemies  are  numerous.  Among  them  are  the  starfish 
that  infest  the  bottom — slow-moving,  harmless  appear- 
ing creatures,  but  the  most  voracious  and  deadly  of  the 
foes  of  the  oyster;  crabs,  the  powerful  claws  of  which 
are  able  to  crush  the  fragile  shells  of  the  young;  and 
drilling  mollusks  that  pierce  the  shell  even  of  adult 
oysters  and  consume  the  soft  part  enclosed  within. 
These  also  must  be  avoided  or  destroyed.  To  all  this 
may  be  added  the  fact  that  bottoms  are  often  so  soft 
that  they  will  not  bear  more  than  a  man's  weight.  Such 
a  condition  alone  might  seem  sufficient  to  make  oyster 
culture  impossible. 


FIG.  19.     Tile    collectors    in   place    on 
France. 


a    tidal    flat    at    Auray, 


FIG.  20.  Arcachon,  France.  Oyster  parks  with  low  clay 
walls.  Water  is  retained  in  those  at  the  right  at  the  low 
tide,  that  at  the  left  being  emptied  for  repairs. 


FIG.  21.  Arcachon.  Parks  with  somewhat  higher  walls  con- 
taining cases  for  the  growing  young.  Figures  from  Pro- 
fessor Bashford  Dean,  U.  S.  F.  C.  Bulletin. 


Oyster  Culture  in  Europe  and  Japan      83 

The  difficulties  that  have  been  enumerated  are  met  by 
converting  the  ground  into  a  series  of  basins  by  means 
of  walls  or  dikes.  These  ponds  are  variable  in  form 
and  in  area,  but  are  usually  rectangles  of  two  or  three 
hundred  square  yards.  The  walls  are  often  simple  and 
inexpensive.  Very  shallow  basins,  like  those  shown  in 
Figure  20,  are  easily  constructed.  To  form  the  wall, 
parallel  lines  of  planks  are  held  in  position  on  edge  by 
means  of  wooden  pegs.  Parallel  lines  of  stakes  are  also 
sometimes  employed,  the  space  between  being  filled  with 
soil.  If  tide  currents  are  strong,  stones  are  used  with 
the  other  filling  material,  in  order  to  give  sufficient 
strength  to  the  wall.  In  some  localities  it  has  been  profit- 
able to  build  walls  of  solid  masonry,  but  this  construction 
is  usually  resorted  to  only  when  a  large  area,  to  be 
flooded  to  a  considerable  depth,  is  to  be  shut  off  from  the 
sea.  The  height  of  the  wall  varies  from  a  few  inches 
to  several  feet.  At  some  favorable  point  in  the  wall, 
a  gate  is  constructed  that,  when  closed,  may  retain  the 
water  that  enters  at  high  tide. 

The  bottom  of  the  basin  must  now  be  prepared.  In 
the  better  parks,  the  center  is  made  a  little  higher  than 
the  margins,  where  trenches  are  often  dug,  in  order  that 
sediment,  settling  on  the  bottom,  may  be  carried 
into  them.  When  the  gate  of  the  full  basin  is  opened, 
the  current  leaving  the  inclosure  by  these  is  sufficient  to 
carry  away  much  of  the  soft  silt.  After  the  bottom  has 
been  roughly  shaped,  it  is  sometimes  hardened  by  pound- 
ing, and  is  covered  by  a  layer  of  clay  or  sand  and  gravel. 
If  the  soil  in  the  walls  is  pervious,  these  also  are  lined 
with  clay  in  order  that  water  may  be  retained. 

It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  bottoms,  originally  of 
the  softest  mud,  are  easily  reclaimed  and  made  hard  and 


84  Our  Food  Mollusks 

firm  by  a  covering  of  shells  or  of  sand  and  gravel,  and 
that  this  covering  need  be  only  a  few  inches  in  thickness. 
Shifting  sand  on  which  oyster  parks  are  built  is  also 
held  in  place  by  a  layer  of  clay. 

In  the  simple  basins  illustrated  in  Figure  20,  oysters 
of  sufficient  size  are  spread  over  the  bottom  and  left  to 
grow.  At  low  tide  they  remain  covered,  and  may  thus 
continue  to  feed  until  a  new  supply  of  water  comes  with 
the  flood  tide.  They  are  also  protected  from  the  sun  of 
summer  and  the  frost  of  winter  seasons.  Not  all  sedi- 
ment will  drain  away,  even  though  the  gates  are  opened 
frequently,  and  though  the  bottoms  have  been  arched 
from  center  to  margins.  When  a  quantity  of  mud  has 
collected,  oysters  are  removed  from  one  basin  to  an- 
other until  the  bottom  has  been  cleaned. 

But  the  entire  process  of  removing  young  oysters 
cannot  be  carried  on  in  basins  as  simple  as  those  shown 
in  the  illustration.  So  much  mud  is  deposited  that  small 
oysters  would  be  smothered.  These  seed  oysters  are 
from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  must  be 
protected  from  sediment  until  they  are  much  larger. 

This  necessity  for  the  protection  of  the  very  young 
has  led  to  the  construction  of  racks  or  boxes  designed  to 
suspend  them  above  the  bottom.  It  is  very  important 
also  to  insure  a  free  flow  of  water  within  the  boxes,  so 
these  are  made  with  narrow  wooden  sides,  the  tops  and 
bottoms  being  constructed  of  galvanized  wire  netting. 
The  top  netting  is  fastened  to  a  wooden  frame  provided 
with  hinges,  or  so  fitted  that  it  may  be  lifted  off.  The 
box  is  then  suspended  a  few  inches  above  the  bottom  on 
stakes. 

Such  boxes  are  represented  in  Figure  21.  Evidently 
they  are  roughly  and  cheaply  made,  but  a  large  number 


Oyster  Culture  in  Europe  and  Japan       85 

would  be  required  to  provide  a  means  of  livelihood  for 
the  most  unambitious  eleveur,  and  his  initial  expense 
would  be  considerable.  But,  properly  cared  for,  these 
boxes  serve  for  many  seasons.  If  carefully  tarred  each 
year,  they  may  be  kept  in  use  for  ten,  or  sometimes 
twenty  years.  Occasionally  more  elaborate  boxes  are 
constructed  that  hold  a  number  of  trays,  but  all  are  built 
on  essentially  the  same  plan. 

Not  only  are  these  cases  necessary  as  a  protection 
against  mud,  but  there  is  great  advantage  in  their  posi- 
tion* on  the  flats  between  tide  lines;  for,  being  exposed 
at  low  water,  oysters  may  readily  be  placed  in  them, 
sorted  from  time  to  time,  and  finally  removed.  The 
cases,  also,  may  be  repaired  with  ease.  When  cases 
are  used  in  enclosed  parks,  it  of  course  is  necessary  that 
the  surrounding  walls  should  be  high  enough  to  hold 
sufficient  water  to  cover  them. 

The  young  oysters  that  have  been  removed  from  tile 
collectors  are  at  first  spread  evenly,  but  closely,  in  the 
bottom  of  the  cases,  and  as  they  increase  in  size,  are  re- 
moved a  few  at  a  time  and  placed  in  other  cases  in  order 
that  all  may  haye  food  and  a  sufficient  amount  of  water 
for  aeration.  The  number  of  food  organisms  brought 
to  the  growing  young  varies  in  different  localities  along 
the  shore,  and  for  this  reason  there  is  a  difference  in  the 
length  of  time  during  which  they  must  be  kept.  In  some 
localities,  two  years  are  sufficient,  while  in  many  others 
they  must  be  cared  for  during  a  third,  a  fourth,  or  even 
a  fifth  year,  before  attaining  marketable  size. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  lamellibranchs  of  various 
species,  living  in  certain  localities,  collect  in  the  gills  and 
in  parts  of  the  mantle,  a  quantity  of  chlorophyl,  the 
green  coloring  matter  characteristic  of  most  plants. 


86  Our  Food  Mollusks 

Green  oysters  appear  in  certain  basins  along  the  Eu- 
ropean coast,  and  the  color  has  happened  to  strike  the 
popular  fancy.  Such  oysters  are  practically  unmarket- 
able in  America,  where  they  also  appear,  though  they 
are  as  wholesome  as  any  others;  but  in  Europe,  and  in 
France  in  particular,  they  are  very  highly  prized  by 
connoisseurs  on  account  of  their  "  peculiarly  delicate 
and  delicious  flavor " — which,  if  it  exists  at  all,  does 
not  arise  from  the  green  coloring  matter. 

Most  of  the  green  oysters  found  in  the  European 
markets  come  from  Marennes  in  France.  Here  in  the 
tide  basins  are  great  numbers  of  green  diatoms,  organ- 
isms used  by  oysters  for  food,  that  collect  in  such  num- 
bers that  they  form  what  is  termed  a  "  moss."  To  this 
is  ascribed  the  green  color  assumed  by  oysters  growing 
near  it.  Here  it  was  discovered  by  the  culturists  that 
the  "  moss  "  developed  most  rapidly  in  very  muddy  in- 
closures  in  which  water  was  seldom  changed.  These 
basins,  or  claires,  are  usually  situated  so  high  as  to  be 
filled  only  once  or  twice  during  the  month.  The  tem- 
perature of  water  held  in  such  a  manner  rises  several 
degrees,  and  this  condition  is  found  to  be  very  favorable 
to  the  multiplication  of  diatoms.  But  while  it  produces 
oyster  food  in  great  abundance,  the  water  loses  so  much 
of  its  oxygen  during  its  stagnation,  that  it  affects  oysters 
adversely.  Those  individuals  that  are  able  to  endure 
the  conditions,  are  said  to  fatten  rapidly,  but  the  mor- 
tality is  usually  great,  being  in  most  cases  at  least 
fifty  in  a  hundred.  There  is  an  extreme  variation  in 
the  rate  at  which  the  green  coloration  is  acquired 
by  the  living  oysters,  the  necessary  time  in  some 
claires  being  two  or  three  weeks,  in  others  as  many 
months. 


Oyster  Culture  in  Europe  and  Japan       87 

Great  attention  is  paid  to  the  appearance  of  these 
oysters  before  they  are  marketed.  After  a  period  of 
rapid  feeding,  there  is  apt  to  be  some  outward  sign  of 
the  dark  colored  matter  contained  in  the  digestive  tract. 
In  order  that  this  may  be  removed,  the  oysters  are  placed 
in  inclosures  containing  clear  water,  and  allowed  to  re- 
main for  a  week  or  more,  during  which  time  very  little 
food  is  consumed.  They  are  then  removed,  and  not  only 
are  the  shells  thoroughly  scrubbed  with  a  brush  to  re- 
move any  trace  of  mud,  but  any  marked  roughness  is  re- 
duced by  a  process  of  scraping.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
contrast  their  appearance  with  that  of  oysters  marketed 
in  the  shell  in  America. 


OYSTER  CULTURE  IN  JAPAN 

Oysters  have  been  cultivated  in  Japan  for  several  cen- 
turies. We  are  told  that  in  ancient  times  a  certain  clam, 
Tapes,  was  gathered  in  the  Sea  of  Aki  and  kept, 
awaiting  shipment  to  market,  in  inclosures  made  of 
bamboo.  It  was  discovered  that  in  certain  places  young 
oysters  attached  to  the  brush  of  the  bamboo,  and  that 
their  position  was  so  favorable  for  growth  that  it  became 
profitable  to  capture  them  in  this  way,  and  rear  them  in 
inclosures.  Thus,  gradually,  oyster  culture  displaced 
the  Tapes  industry. 

Two  species  of  oysters  grow  on  Japanese  shores.  The 
one  that  occurs  most  commonly  and  is  reared  by  the  cul- 
turists,  is  known  as  Ostrea  cucullata.  It  has  the  gen- 
eral appearance  of  our  Atlantic  oyster,  but  is  somewhat 
smaller.  Its  cultivation  is  practised  most  extensively  in 
the  Inland  Sea. 


88  Our  Food  Mollusks 

On  the  southern  and  eastern  coasts,  a  very  small 
oyster,  possibly  a  variety  of  O.  cucullata,  grows  in  great 
numbers  in  the  shallow  waters  of  bays  and  inlets.  The 
shell  rarely  attains  a  length  of  more  than  two  inches. 
This  oyster  encrusts  the  rocks  between  tide  lines,  and 
cannot  be  removed  without  breaking  the  shell.  Trie 
fishermen  therefore  go  among  the  rocks  at  low  tide,  and 
open  the  oysters  without  attempting  to  detach  them. 

Another  distinct  species,  Ostrea  gigas,  an  extremely 
large  and  heavy  form,  is  found  in  a  few  localities  on  the 
Japanese  coast.  It  seldom  occurs  in  very  shallow  waters, 
where  other  oysters  are  commonly  found,  but  at  a  depth 
of  ten  or  twelve  fathoms.  Though  this  oyster  is  used 
for  food,  it  is  so  rarely  taken  that  it  does  not  often  ap- 
pear in  the  market.  Its  habit  of  life  in  deep  water  per- 
haps has  made  its  culture  impossible. 

Because  the  habits  of  all  oysters  are  very  similar,  the 
methods  employed  in  rearing  the  Japanese  oyster,  though 
entirely  independent  in  origin,  are  essentially  like  those 
of  Europe  and  America.  In  the  Inland  Sea,  as  else- 
where, oysters  require  for  the  process  of  reproduc- 
tion the  comparatively  fresh  waters  of  bays  receiving 
streams  from  the  land.  On  the  Japanese  coast,  as  in 
Europe,  localities  having  waters  of  the  optimum  density 
are  limited  in  area  and  more  or  less  narrowly  defined. 
At  certain  points,  however,  it  is  possible  for  the  culturist 
to  obtain  his  own  set  of  young,  and  rear  them  for  mar- 
ket on  a  single  small  plot  of  bottom  which  he  has 
rented.  In  Europe  it  is  almost  everywhere  necessary 
for  him  to  purchase  his  young  oysters  from  another 
who  possesses  ground  on  the  very  few  bottoms  favorable 
for  oyster  reproduction. 

Japanese  culturists  have  not  adopted  the  tile  collector 


Of    THE 

(   UNIVERSITY  j 

OF 


Oyster  Culture  in  Europe  and  Japan       89 

of  the  European  industry,  but  retain  the  ancient  and  ef- 
fective brush  collector.  For  this,  the  light,  strong  bam- 
boo is  employed.  It  serves  its  purpose  admirably,  and 
is  easily  obtained.  Short  pieces,  usually  bearing  their 
branches,  are  thrust  into  the  bottom  between  tide  lines. 
In  this  position  they  are  easily  examined  and  kept  in 
order.  There  is  little  trouble  from  mud,  or  the  forma- 
tion of  slime.  The  collectors,  arranged  in  lines  or  clus- 
ters so  as  best  to  be  exposed  to  the  currents,  are  set  out 
in  the  early  spring,  and  young  oysters  begin  to  appear 
near  the  middle  of  April  and  continue  to  attach  for  some 
weeks.  The  character  of  such  a  collecting  ground  is 
well  shown  in  Figures  22  and  23.  Here  the  bamboo 
rods  are  arranged  in  long  rows,  three  or  four  feet  in 
height. 

If  left  to  themselves,  young  oysters,  greatly  crowded 
on  the  stakes,  would  not  be  able  to  attain  a  rounded 
form,  and  very  many  would  perish.  So  those  oysters 
that  have  attained  a  certain  size  are  detached  from  the 
collectors  and  removed  to  a  deeper  bottom,  that  has 
been  prepared  for  them.  On  this  they  are  immersed  for 
a  longer  period  each  day  and  grow  more  rapidly  in  con- 
sequence. Oysters  are  from  one  to  two  years  old  when 
thus  spread  on  the  bottom,  and  remain  for  another  year 
or  two  before  attaining  marketable  size.  Very  few 
enemies  trouble  them.  One  or  two  species  of  boring 
mollusks  appear  at  certain  points  on  the  coast,  but  these 
may  easily  be  removed  at  low  tide.  The  starfish  gives 
little  trouble. 

Usually  the  larger  oysters  from  such  a  bed  are  re- 
moved from  time  to  time,  and  placed  in  still  lower  beds 
where  they  are  uncovered  but  once  or  twice  each  month, 
and  here  they  attain  the  greatest  possible  rate  of  growth. 


90  Our  Food  Mollusks 

In  this  way  are  produced  fine,  large  oysters  much  like 
our  own  in  size. 

Many  natural  conditions  make  oyster  culture  easier  in 
Japan  than  in  Europe.  The  coastal  waters  are  less 
muddy;  there  is  no  necessity  for  artificial  ponds;  oysters 
reproduce  over  a  large  area;  the  cheap  bamboo  is  a  good 
collector,  and  is  easily  handled;  and  there  are  few 
natural  enemies  to  contend  against. 

It  is  fortunate,  also,  that  oyster  grounds  in  Japan  are 
not  exploited  as  a  government  monopoly,  but  are  rented 
to  private  interests,  for  it  is  only  in  this  way  that  the 
greatest  success  in  such  an  industry  is  possible. 


CHAPTER  VI 

CONDITIONS   GOVERNING   OYSTER 

GROWTH— OYSTER  PLANT- 

ING  IN  AMERICA 

YSTER  culture  in  America  is  very  simple  as 
compared  with  that  in  Europe.  There  it  is 
difficult  to  obtain  the  young,  or  the  "  seed," 
and  laborious  and  costly  methods  are  resorted 
to  in  effecting  its  capture,  and  in  protecting  it  during  the 
period  of  its  growth.  Here  seed  is  abundant,  growth  is 
vigorous,  and  bottoms  are  naturally  better  adapted  to 
the  industry. 

The  complicated  methods,  necessary  for  success  in  Eu- 
rope, will  not  be  employed  in  this  country  until  the  price 
of  oysters  is  relatively  very  much  higher  than  it  is  there. 
These  foreign  methods  if  introduced  on  our  shores, 
would  reclaim  much  marshy  shore-land  now  entirely  un- 
productive, and  the  American  oyster  would  undoubtedly 
respond  to  the  treatment  as  the  foreign  form  does. 
Nevertheless,  it  will  be  many  decades  before  the  simpler 
American  method  will  be  superseded  by  any  other  on  our 
coasts,  if  indeed  the  event  ever  occurs. 

There  are  two  reasons  for  such  a  belief.  One  is  that 
the  area  along  the  American  coast  available  for  oyster 
culture  after  the  less  expensive  American  method,  is 
enormous.  No  one  can  now  accurately  estimate  its  ex- 
tent. It  includes  not  only  the  territory  formerly  occu- 
pied by  "  wild "  oysters,  but  also  great  tracts  where 

91 


92  Our  Food  Mollusks 

oysters  have  never  existed,  and  which  may  be  discovered 
by  intelligently  directed  experiment.  Already  many  of 
these  have  been  determined  in  Long  Island  Sound,  where 
oysters  are  successfully  cultivated  miles  from  shore, 
and  under  water  as  deep  as  one  hundred  feet.  Else- 
where ton  the  coast,  these  unoccupied  areas  have  hardly 
been  considered;  but  in  certain  localities,  as  in  Pamlico 
Sound,  and  about  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi,  they  will 
undoubtedly  prove  to  be  very  extensive. 

For  yet  another  reason,  European  methods  can  hardly 
obtain  in  this  country.  Extensive  oyster  culture  abroad 
would,  on  account  of  the  labor  involved,  be  impossible 
without  a  social  caste  system.  This  is  everywhere  pres- 
ent in  Europe,  and,  to  a  genuine  American,  presents  an 
appalling  state  of  affairs.  Even  in  republican  France, 
society  retains  a  real  reverence  for  its  princes  and  its 
counts,  and  every  other  nation  but  Switzerland  staggers 
under  the  heavy  burden  of  an  idle  and  expensive  aristoc- 
racy. Below  its  members  in  the  scale  are  the  middle 
classes,  the  trades  people,  subservient  to  their  superiors, 
and  often  brutally  contemptuous  of  the  under  stratum, 
the  common  people.  The  latter,  born  into  humility,  sel- 
dom have  independence  bred  into  them,  but  calmly  sub- 
mit to  their  heaven-sent  estate.  And  they  obediently  la- 
bor for  a  pittance  that  an  Americanized  Oriental  would 
scorn.  It  is  this  one  condition  that  makes  oyster  culture 
possible  in  Europe. 

Labor  of  that  character  would  be  necessary  if  the 
same  method  of 'oyster  culture  were  to  become  profitable 
in  the  United  States.  That  it  ever  will  exist  here  is  im- 
probable. It  is,  however,  interesting  to  observe  that 
European  social  customs  continue  to  have  a  great  influence 
on  our  own.  Some  of  us  believe  that  they  do  things  bet- 


Conditions  Governing  Oyster  Growth      93 

ter  there.  Waves  of  fashion  in  dress,  and  manners,  and 
social  customs,  sometimes  degrading  enough,  continually 
roll  toward  our  shores  from  abroad.  Though  these 
break  and  spend  their  force  largely  on  the  northern 
coast,  some  of  them  continue  westward  across  the  con- 
tinent as  very  noticeable  ripples.  Not  all  of  them  are 
alarming,  and  some  sinister  ones  may  hardly  succeed  in 
crossing  the  ocean,  but  they  are  all  worthy  of  attention. 

Much  more  interesting  is  the  growing  aristocracy  of 
wealth  that  is  desperately  striving  to  establish  itself 
among  us,  and  it  is  inevitable  that  there  should  be  many 
who  regard  it  complacently.  A  little  too  frequently  in 
speech,  and  even  in  the  editorial  writings  of  leading  jour- 
nals, appear  such  phrases  as  "  our  middle  class  "  or  "  our 
common  people."  Even  this  attempted  social  segrega- 
tion of  the  few  persons  of  great  wealth,  however,  is  not 
disturbing  in  view  of  the  fact  that,  with  every  year, 
democracy  more  clearly  appears  to  be  the  fundamental 
element  of  the  nation's  life. 

The  chief  differences  between  the  oyster  culture  of  the 
continent,  in  Europe,  and  that  of  our  own  shores,  are 
that  here  oysters  are  cultivated  below  tide  lines;  we 
neither  employ  tile  spat  collectors,  construct  reservoirs 
for  the  growing  young,  or  for  the  growth  of  diatoms  on 
which  they  feed,  nor  build  racks  on  which  to  support 
them  above  the  bottom.  Small  oysters  from  natural 
beds  are  spread  on  suitable  bottoms  to  mature,  or  the 
swimming  young  are  captured  on  simple  collectors,  and 
planted  in  the  same  way.  There  has  been  little  change 
of  procedure  since  the  days  of  the  City  Island  men  who 
began  oyster  culture  in  America,  because  natural  condi- 
tions have  remained  so  favorable  that  a  change  has  not 
been  necessary.  A 


94  Our  Food  Mollusks 

Success  in  oyster  farming,  however,  is  not  so  easy  of 
attainment  as  it  may  appear  to  be.  There  are  a  great 
many  necessary  details  to  be  learned,  especially  in  regard 
to  the  natural  requirements  of  the  oyster.  One  should 
be  able  to  recognize  suitable  bottoms.  Water  currents 
must  be  considered.  One  must  know  the  varying  ef- 
fects of  muddy  water  on  mature  oysters  and  swimming 
larvae.  A  low  temperature  of  the  water  in  the  spring 
or  early  summer,  while  not  apparently  harmful  to  adult 
oysters,  may  be  sufficient  to  prevent  reproduction.  In  the 
north,  water  less  than  a  certain  depth  may  be  dangerous 
in  winter.  It  is  important  to  know  the  extremes  of 
salinity  within  which  oysters  can  live.  The  successful 
oyster  farmer  should  also  know  the  optimum  density  for 
adult  and  young  alike.  The  amount  of  food  in  the 
water,  of  course,  vitally  affects  rapidity  of  growth  and 
the  condition  of  oysters.  Thus  it  is  not  always  easy  to 
select  areas  that  conform  to  all  the  conditions  necessary 
for  success. 

For  many  reasons  the  character  of  the  bottom  must  be 
carefully  considered.  A  rocky  or  very  uneven  surface  is 
out  of  the  question,  but  bottoms  rough  from  the  presence 
of  small  obstructions  are  sometimes  made  suitable  for 
oyster  planting,  even  in  deep  water,  by  a  thorough  scrap- 
ing with  dredges. 

Over  the  greater  part  of  the  oyster  territory  bottoms 
are  more  or  less  muddy,  and  the  nature  of  this  mud  must 
be  determined.  On  many  of  the  best  northern  oyster 
grounds  there  is  but  a  thin  surface  layer  of  it  covering  a 
firmer  foundation.  This,  without  any  preparation,  is 
found  to  afford  a  secure  resting  place  for  planted  oysters. 
In  many  parts  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  however,  the  bot- 
tom is  composed  q^pud  so  soft  and  oozy  that  a  pole  may 


Conditions  Governing  Oyster  Growth      95 

be  driven  into  it,  by  force  of  hand  alone,  to  a  depth  of 
several  feet.  It  is  very  generally  believed  that  such  con- 
ditions cannot  be  overcome,  the  assumption  being  that 
any  kind  of  pavement  placed  on  it  would  sink  below  the 
surface.  That  such  is  not  true,  will  be  shown  in  the 
discussion  of  the  Louisiana  field.  In  parts  of  Long 
Island  Sound,  where  mud  is  deep  but  not  so  soft  as  in 
the  Gulf,  bottoms  have  been  successfully  prepared  by 
paving  with  shells  or  with  sand  and  gravel.  Bottoms 
naturally  sandy  are  also  often  selected  by  the  oyster 
farmer,  but  under  shallow  water,  where  they  may  be 
shifted  by  wave  action,  they  are  unsafe.  It  is  specially 
desirable  that  the  bottom  should  be  firm,  to  withstand 
wave  or  tide  action  where  spat  is  to  be  gathered  on  col- 
lectors, for  the  young  are  quickly  smothered  in  a  quan- 
tity of  mud  that  would  not  seriously  affect  mature 
oysters. 

The  oyster  finds  almost  its  entire  food  supply  in 
diatoms  of  various  species.  These  are  floating  plants, 
microscopically  small,  which  derive  their  nourishment 
from  substances  brought  down  in  solution  from  the  land. 
Their  distribution  along  the  coast  is  universal.  They  are 
not  confined  to  the  surface,  but  may  be  found  at  all 
depths.  Every  one  has  noticed  the  brown  coat  left  on 
the  surface  of  a  clam  flat  when  it  is  exposed  at  low 
water.  When  examined,  this  is  found  to  contain  vast 
numbers  of  (Jiatoms,  though  it  is  not  by  any  means  en- 
tirely or  even  chiefly  composed  of  them,  as  sometimes 
stated. 

The  amount  of  available  oyster  food  over  a  given  area 
depends  largely  on  water  currents.  Where  there  is  no 
current,  oysters  quickly  exhaust  the  water  about  them 
of  the  food  that  it  carries.  A  current  continually  re- 


96  Our  Food  Mollusks 

plenishes  the  supply.  Up  to  a  certain  point,  the  more 
rapid  the  current,  the  greater  will  be  the  amount  of 
available  food.  But  one  current  bears  more  food  than 
another.  Salt  water,  for  example,  that  flows  out  from 
shallow  marshes  during  the  ebb  tide,  usually  bears  great 
numbers  of  diatoms  because  the  marshes  are  warmer 
than  the  sea  water  outside,  and  the  higher  temperature 
stimulates  a  rapid  multiplication  of  these  organisms. 
Food  is  sometimes  so  abundant  that  a  rapid  current  is 
not  necessary.  For  this  reason  it  is  not  possible  to  give 
a  rate  that  shall  be  most  favorable  for  oyster  growth 
in  all  localities. 

The  presence  of  suspended  silt  in  the  water  is  a  con- 
dition to  be  observed  with  care.  It  is  an  especially  im- 
portant problem  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  There  it  is 
found  that  oysters  often  thrive  and  reproduce  in  local- 
ities where,  much  of  the  time,  the  water  is  very  muddy. 
But  it  is  also  true  that  currents  in  such  places  are  too 
rapid  to  deposit  much  of  their  silt.  In  more  quiet 
waters,  where  mud  slowly  collects  on  the  bottom,  ma- 
ture oysters  may  be  able  to  exist,  but  even  a  slight  deposi- 
tion is  fatal  to  newly  attached  spat.  Finally,  there  are 
many  places  where  mud  collects  so  rapidly  that  life  on 
the  bottom  is  impossible.  Much  experience  is  needed  to 
enable  one  to  recognize  these  conditions,  when  searching 
for  available  bottoms  not  already  occupied  by  oysters. 

Oysters  will  grow  in  water  having  a  summer  tem- 
perature so  low  as  to  prevent  reproduction.  At  several 
points  on  the  coasts  of  Washington  and  California,  small 
Atlantic  seed  oysters  grow  to  marketable  size.  The 
summer  temperature  is  much  lower  than  on  the  Atlantic 
below  Cape  Cod,  and  the  sexual  products  mature  only  in 
certain  warmer  coves.  Experiments  made  many  years 


Conditions  Governing  Oyster  Growth      97 

ago  in  North  Carolina  and  in  the  Chesapeake,  indicated 
that  reproduction  practically  ceased  when  the  tempera- 
ture during  the  breeding  season  fell  below  60°  Fahrenheit, 
and  that  the  swimming  stage  was  rarely  reached  when 
the  water  was  warmer  than  80°.  But  it  is  probable  that 
the  minimum  temperature  at  which  reproduction  is  pos- 
sible is  nearer  70°  than  60°,  and  it  takes  place  in  water 
above  80°  in  certain  parts  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  If  the 
facts  were  known,  it  might  possibly  be  found  that  there 
were  variations  in  minimum,  optimum,  and  maximum 
temperatures,  oysters  having  accommodated  themselves 
to  the  varying  conditions  in  different  localities. 

Because  of  danger  from  frost  or  ice,  oysters  are  not 
left  in  very  shallow  water  where  the  winter  temperature 
is  low.  Young  oysters,  especially,  are  susceptible  to  ex- 
treme cold. 

Though  a  determination  of  the  salinity  of  the  water, 
and  a  systematic  observation  of  its  variations,  would  be 
of  value  to  oyster  culturists,  few  have  interested  them- 
selves in  the  subject.  It  is  nearly  as  easy  to  observe 
salinity  as  temperature.  All  that  is  necessary  is  a  simple 
case  containing  two  glass  floats  (Figure  24),  with  hollow 
bulbs  so  weighed  that  in  distilled  water,  each  sinks  until 
the  surface  of  the  water  reaches  the  zero  point  on  a 
scale  borne  in  the  stem.  The  density  of  distilled  water 
is  read  i.ooo. 

The  salt  in  solution  in  sea  water  prevents  the  float 
from  sinking  to  so  great  a  depth  as  this.  If  the  water, 
in  a  test  case,  reaches  the  numeral  9  of  the  scale,  the 
density  is  read  1.009.  This  scale  measures  densities 
from  i.ooo  to  i.on.  The  second  float  bears  a  scale 
registering  densities  ranging  from  i.oio  to  1.021,  the 
range  for  both  covering  variations  likely  to  be  found 


Our  Food  Mollusks 


over  oyster  beds.  The  floats  are  about 
eight  inches  long,  and  nothing  else  is 
required  but  a  vessel  that  will  hold  a 
column  of  water  of  that  height,  in 
which  the  apparatus  may  be  immersed. 
Temperature  corrections  are  not  neces- 
sary in  ordinary  observations. 

Surface  and  bottom  densities  often 
vary  greatly,  and  obviously  that  at  the 
bottom  is  the  one  of  greatest  interest 
to  the  oysterman.  It  may  be  obtained 
by  sinking  a  corked  vessel  and  then  re- 
moving the  cork  by  means  of  a  cord. 

Oysters  are  brackish  water  forms. 
Their  natural  distribution  has  always 
been  close  to  the  shore  where  waters 
are  fresher  than  in  the  open  sea.  If 
other  conditions  are  favorable,  they 
will  exist  in  very  salt  water,  but  grow 
little,  and  do  not  reproduce.  On  the 
other  hand,  mature  oysters  have  been 
known  to  live  for  some  time  in  water 
nearly  fresh.  Such  an  experience, 
however,  is  always  harmful.  It  some- 
times happens,  as  in  the  Carolina  field 
and  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  that  long 
continued  freshets  cause  widespread 
destruction.  On  a  considerable  part 
of  the  latter  shore,  especially,  the 
freshening  of  the  water  is  a  con- 
tingency on  which  the  oyster  culturist 
must  take  his  chances. 
The  extremes  of  salinity  between  which  the  growth  of 


FIG.  24.  —  Salino- 
meter.  A  glass 
bulb  weighted 
with  shot  and 
carrying  a  scale 
for  measuring 
the  amount  of 
salt  in  sea- 
water. 


Conditions  Governing  Oyster  Growth      99 

mature  oysters  is  possible,  are  greater  than  those  limiting 
reproduction.  The  optimum  has  not  been  precisely  de- 
termined in  either  case.  When  food  and  temperature 
conditions  are  favorable,  growth  apparently  is  most  rapid 
in  water  with  a  salinity  varying  from  about  1.012  to 
1.016.  There  may  be  no  very  narrowly  limited  opti- 
mum salinity,  but  whatever  its  limits,  it  is  possible  that 
they  are  not  the  same  on  all  parts  of  the  coast. 

In  the  matter  of  reproduction,  also,  very  few  experi- 
ments have  been  made  to  determine  the  optimum  salin- 
ity. Some  observations  made  several  years  ago  indi- 
cated an  optimum  much  lower  than  that  of  growth,  and 
these  are  usually  quoted.  It  would  naturally  be  expected 
that  the  most  favorable  density  for  growth  would  also  be 
best  for  reproduction,  and  recent  observations  confirm 
this.  Where  it  has  been  noticed  by  a  trained  observer, 
the  best  set  of  spat  occurs  in  water  the  density  of  which 
varied  between  i.oio  and  1.017.  Whether  or  not  there 
is  an  optimum  of  narrower  limits,  is  not  known. 

Sudden  changes  of  density,  so  common  everywhere 
in  shallow  water  near  the  shore,  are  always  harmful  and 
sometimes  fatal.  Swimming  embryos,  for  example,  are 
often  destroyed  by  a  fall  of  rain.  Though  the  resulting 
*  change  of  temperature  may  play  a  large  part  in  it,  it  is 
possible  that  the  sudden  change  of  density  is  also  very 
harmful.  Recent  experiment  has  proved  that  the  trans- 
planting of  oysters  to  water  of  a  different  density, 
whether  greater  or  less,  has  a  bad  effect  even  when  the 
difference  is  slight.  If  the  difference  is  considerable, 
oysters  may  cease  to  grow  or  may  die.  These  effects  are 
specially  marked  on  mature  individuals.  The  very  young 
attached  oysters  are  better  able  to  adapt  themselves  to 
such  changes. 


ioo  Our  Food  Mollusks 

It  thus  appears  that  the  conditions  necessary  for  oyster 
growth  are  numerous  and  more  or  less  sharply  defined. 
Some  writers  extolling  the  peculiar  advantages  for  oyster 
culture  afforded  by  certain  untried  waters,  have  had  the 
belief  that  oysters  would  grow  and  multiply  anywhere 
in  them.  But  the  required  conditions  are  as  exact  as 
those  governing  the  production  of  wheat,  or  cotton,  or 
rice.  It  is  a  fortunate  circumstance  that  the  require- 
ments are  met  by  so  great  a  part  of  our  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
shores.  Nevertheless  there  are  many  localities  on  these 
coasts  where  one  or  more  of  these  conditions  are  lack- 
ing, and  where  an  attempt  at  oyster  culture  might  result 
in  failure. 

It  need  not  be  said  that  where  oysters  flourish  in  a  state 
of  nature,  the  conditions  are  fully  met.  If  one  were  to 
use  only  such  a  locality  for  his  oyster  garden,  a  careful 
study  of  the  conditions  governing  growth  would  be  un- 
necessary ;  but  the  application  of  such  a  study  has  shown 
that  vast  tracts  that  have  never  borne  oysters,  only  lack 
some  requirement  that  may  be  supplied  by  the  culturist. 
In  this  way,  the  productive  territory  has  been  greatly  ex- 
tended, and  is  yet  capable  of  vast  expansion. 

OYSTER  PLANTING 

For  the  sake  of  convenience  in  description,  the  methods 
of  rearing  oysters  employed  in  America  may  arbitrarily 
be  separated  into  two  groups,  those  that  have  to  do  with 
oyster  planting,  and  those  employed  in  oyster  culture. 

Oyster  planting,  as  here  defined,  consists  in  gathering 
oysters  from  one  locality  and  spreading  them  out  in  an- 
other to  grow.  It  is  the  only  culture  method  employed 
over  a  considerable  part  of  both  of  our  coasts.  In  oyster 


Conditions  Governing  Oyster  Growth     101 

planting,  the  number  of  oysters  is  not  increased,  but  only 
those  are  used  that  have  been  produced  under  natural  and 
unmodified  conditions. 

The  term  oyster  culture,  on  the  other  hand,  may  con- 
veniently be  applied  to  that  process  that  increases  the 
number  of  oysters  by  artificial  means,  as  when  artificial 
collectors  are  employed  to  capture  the  young  that  would 
perish  if  nature  were  not  thus  aided. 

In  some  cases  oyster  culture  has  become  diversified,  a 
division  of  labor  being  effected,  in  which  certain  individu- 
als devote  their  entire  time  and  energy  to  increasing  the 
number  of  oysters  by  means  of  artificial  collectors,  while 
others  complete  the  process  by  caring  for  them  during 
their  growth. 

Usually  a  barren  bottom  is  selected  for  planting,  as  the 
laws  of  most  states  reserve  the  natural  beds  for  seed. 
When  this  has  been  cleared,  and  if  necessary,  made  firm 
by  the  deposition  of  shells  or  sand  and  gravel,  small 
seed  oysters  are  spread  evenly  over  its  surface.  These 
are  allowed  to  remain  until  they  have  attained  a  market- 
able size,  when  they  are  gathered  and  sold.  This  method 
is  carried  on  extensively,  and  often  gives  large  returns  for 
the  money  and  labor  invested. 

Seed  oysters  vary  greatly  in  size.  Sometimes  the  al- 
most microscopic  young,  newly  attached  to  the  shells  of 
adults  or  to  pebbles,  are  employed.  In  other  cases,  oysters 
two  or  three  inches  in  length  are  planted.  The  usual  size 
of  seed  oysters  is  perhaps  about  that  of  a  silver  half- 
dollar. 

There  are  some  evident  advantages  in  planting  large 
seed  oysters.  The  first  is  that  they  need  to  grow  for  a 
relatively  short  time.  More  important  still,  they  seldom 
need  to  be  disturbed  until  they  are  ready  for  market. 


102  Our  Food  Mollusks 

When  large,  they  usually  have  been  culled,  or  separated, 
after  they  have  been  taken  from  the  natural  bed,  and  con- 
sequently grow  more  rapidly  and  assume  a  better  shape 
than  if  closely  crowded.  On  the  other  hand,  increase 
in  the  size  of  large  oysters  is  relatively  slow,  and  the 
amount  of  increase  is  not  great.  A  bushel  of  very  small 
seed  may  eventually  produce  ten  bushels  or  more  of  mar- 
ketable oysters,  while  seed  may  sometimes  be  so  large  as  to 
yield  but  two  or  three  bushels  from  the  one  planted. 

The  most  important  feature  of  the  planting  of  small 
seed  is  the  possibility  of  its  great  increase  in  volume.  In 
Europe,  seed  oysters  as  small  as  one's  finger  nail  are 
carefully  separated  from  each  other  when  removed  from 
the  collectors  on  which  they  have  become  attached.  But 
the  price  of  labor  in  this  country,  when  compared  with 
the  market  price  of  oysters,  precludes  the  possibility  of 
employing  such  methods  here.  So  very  small  oysters 
are  planted  still  attached  to  the  collectors — shells  or 
gravel — and  allowed  to  grow  for  some  time  closely 
crowded  as  they  are. 

Usually  a  time  comes  when  they  should  be  removed 
from  the  bottom  and  separated  in  order  to  prevent  crowd- 
ing. This  is  accomplished  much  more  easily  and  with 
smaller  loss  with  oysters  that  have  been  growing  for  a 
year  or  two  than  with  very  small  seed.  Planters  natur- 
ally differ  greatly  in  their  methods.  Some  will  allow 
small  seed  to  do  the  best  that  it  can  without  attention, 
and  finally  dredge  and  sell  the  oysters  that  have  been  able 
to  attain  marketable  size.  Others  really  cultivate  the 
beds,  culling  the  oysters  and  removing  useless  shells,  sea- 
weed, and  other  obstructing  material,  and  they  receive 
larger  returns,  because  their  oysters  are  of  better  shape 
and  size. 


Conditions  Governing  Oyster  Growth     103 

There  has  always  been  much  discussion  among  those 
who  are  interested  in  oyster  culture  over  the  relative  ad- 
vantages of  different  sections  of  the  coast,  especially  as 
they  concern  rapidity  of  growth.  But  it  is  evident  from 
the  statements  that  have  here  been  made,  that  the  length 
of  time  during  which  planted  oysters  must  be  left  in  the 
water  to  mature,  depends  on  several  factors  that  must 
vary  even  in  neighboring  localities. 

One  might  ask  how  long  planted  oysters  must  be  al- 
lowed to  grow  in  Long  Island  Sound  as  compared  with 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  before  attaining  marketable  size. 
But  to  answer  accurately  would  require  a  volume  of  com- 
parisons and  averages.  The  rate  of  growth  may  be  twice 
as  fast  on  one  bed  as  on  another  a  mile  or  two  distant, 
for  it  depends  on  the  nature  of  local  currents,  tempera- 
ture, salinity,  the  character  of  the  bottom,  and  the  num- 
ber of  oysters  placed  on  it.  The  size  of  the  seed  when 
planted  would  make  it  necessary  to  leave  one  lot  six  or 
eight  times  as  long  as  another.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  this 
time  in  northern  waters  varies  from  six  months  to  three 
or  four  years. 

The  question  of  relative  rapidity  of  growth  in  certain 
specified  localities  is  one  worth  determining  when  pos- 
sible, and  some  known  cases  of  increase,  from  the  time 
of  the  attachment  of  the  embryo,  will  be  mentioned  in 
another  place. 

After  the  culturist  has  prepared  the  surface  of  his  bed, 
he  must  determine  the  number  of  oysters  to  be  planted  on 
it.  If  there  are  no  other  beds  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
on  which  the  matter  has  been  tested,  he  may  need  to  ex- 
periment in  order  to  determine  how  great  a  number  the 
waters  will  support.  The  greatest  danger  is  from  over- 
crowding, for  when  numbers  reach  a  certain  limit,  the 


IO4  Our  Food  Mollusks 

food  supply  will  not  be  sufficient  for  maximum  growth. 
In  Long  Island  Sound  the  limit  is  from  three  hundred  to 
six  hundred  bushels  for  an  acre  of  bottom.  It  is  quite 
possible  that  some  waters  in  the  South  may  yet  be  found 
capable  of  supporting  a  greater  number. 

On  the  shore  of  the  continent  in  Europe,  oysters  are 
planted  between  tide  lines.  There  they  are  spread  out 
evenly  on  the  ground  at  ebb  tide,  or  arranged  by  hand  in 
racks.  On  our  shore,  all  planting  is  done  below  the  tide 
lines,  so  seed  oysters  must  be  thrown  overboard  from 
boats.  The  planter  tries  to  spread  his  seed  as  evenly  as 
possible.  If  he  has  a  large  area  to  cover,  he  temporarily 
divides  it  into  small  plots,  by  stakes  in  shallow  water, 
and  by  buoys  in  deep,  and  then  plants  one  plot  at  a  time. 

Let  us  suppose  that  he  has  but  a  few  acres  that  are  to  be 
planted  from  skiffs,  and  that  he  desires  to  spread  about 
three  hundred  bushels  of  seed  oysters  on  an  acre.  If  he 
does  his  work  carefully,  he  temporarily  divides  an  acre 
into  sixteen  squares  that  are  somewhat  more  than  fifty 
feet  on  a  side.  Loading  a  skiff  with  eighteen  or  nine- 
teen bushels  of  seed,  he  takes  it  to  one  of  the  small 
squares,  and,  with  a  shovel,  flirts  the  cargo  as  evenly  as 
possible  over  the  area.  A  like  amount,  spread  in  the  same 
way  on  each  of  the  other  squares,  gives  him  an  evenly 
seeded  acre  bearing  about  three  hundred  bushels.  The 
advantages  of  even  planting  are  obvious,  but  the  work  is 
not  always  done  carefully. 

Those  who  practise  planting  on  a  large  scale,  especially 
in  the  deeper  waters  of  Long  Island  Sound,  employ  steam 
vessels  for  towing  scows,  loaded  with  seed,  slowly  back 
and  forth  over  an  area  marked  by  buoys,  while  a  gang  of 
men  on  each  scow  unloads  it  by  means  of  shovels. 

In  northern  waters  especially,  planted  areas  are  very 


Conditions  Governing  Oyster  Growth     105 

extensive,  and  one  naturally  asks  where  the  planter  ob- 
tains his  seed.  When  the  states  with  oyster  shores  passed 
laws  allowing  individuals  or  companies  to  buy  or  lease 
bottoms  for  oyster  culture,  they  very  generally  reserved 
the  natural  beds  for  common  seed  grounds.  Serious 
trouble  has  arisen  everywhere  because  of  the  difficulty  in 
formulating  a  satisfactory  definition  of  a  natural  bed. 
But  the  plan  of  reserving  wild  oysters  was  essentially  a 
good  one,  because  they  usually  assured  a  set  of  spat. 
Planted  oysters,  of  course,  also  spawn,  but  it  might  hap- 
pen in  any  locality  that  there  would  be  few  or  none  of 
them  left  during  the  breeding  season.  Planters  are  usu- 
ally allowed  to  gather  small  oysters  from  natural  beds 
for  planting.  These  are  culled  and  placed  on  new  bot- 
toms. In  the  North,  where  this  has  been  practised  for 
many  years,  the  natural  beds  in  some  localities  have  be- 
come depleted;  but  in  Connecticut,  the  greatest  of  seed 
producing  states,  there  are  still  six  thousand  acres  of 
natural  beds  that  usually  yield  a  large  number  of  seed 
oysters. 

Many  years  ago  the  planters  of  New  England  and  New 
York  conceived  the  plan  of  purchasing  seed  from  the 
South.  There  were  many  localities,  especially  in  the 
Chesapeake,  where  the  set  of  spat  was  abundant  and 
rarely  failed.  There  was  then  no  planting  done  in  Mary- 
land or  Virginia,  and  the  business  of  transporting  seed  to 
the  North  became,  and  for  many  years  remained,  a  very 
great  one.  To-day,  however,  it  has  quite  passed. 

There  were  two  reasons  for  this.  The  people  of  Vir- 
ginia finally  woke  to  the  fact  that  if  it  paid  to  transport 
seed  to  the  North  for  planting  in  the  relatively  unfavor- 
able waters  there,  it  certainly  should  pay  to  plant  the  seed 
already  at  hand  on  barren  bottoms  in  their  own  fertile 


io6  Our  Food  Mollusks 

waters.  Laws  were  passed  giving  citizens  rights  to  pri- 
vate holdings,  and  the  planting  industry  was  established. 
The  second  reason  for  the  decline  of  seed  transportation 
from  the  South  was  that  northern  oystermen  learned  to 
supply  their  own  needs,  and  even,  finally,  to  produce  more 
seed  at  home  than  they  required,  thus  allowing  them  to 
export  to  Europe  and  to  transport  to  the  Pacific  coast. 
This  was  accomplished  when  certain  companies  and  in- 
dividuals gave  up  oyster  planting  for  collecting  alone. 
As  on  all  oyster  coasts,  there  are  several  specially  favored 
localities  in  Long  Island  Sound  where  young  oysters 
may  be  collected  in  great  numbers.  In  such  places  avail- 
able bottoms  are  utilized  for  obtaining  the  young  on  col- 
lectors, and  the  material  so  gathered  is  sold  to  planters. 
Much  seed  is  also  taken  from  natural  beds. 

This  business  of  collecting  and  selling  seed  in  northern 
waters  is  sometimes  remunerative,  but  it  is  precarious,  be- 
cause the  set  is  irregular  and  beyond  control.  The  total 
number  of  oysters  in  Long  Island  Sound  has  been  increas- 
ing rapidly  for  many  years,  but  there  has  not  been  a  pro- 
portionate increase  in  the  set  of  young.  During  the  sum- 
mer and  fall  of  1899  there  occurred  a  very  profuse  and 
long  continued  set  of  spat.  This  year  is  still  spoken  of 
as  "  the  year  of  the  great  set."  Attachment  was  not  con- 
fined to  the  vicinity  of  natural  beds,  but  occurred  in  deep 
water  as  well.  The  phenomenon  was  so  general  that  the 
price  of  seed  oysters  became  very  low.  The  industry  as  a 
whole  was  greatly  benefited  by  the  condition,  but  dealers 
in  seed  made  less  from  it  than  did  the  planters. 

No  marked  changes  in  natural  conditions  were  ob- 
served during  the  next  year,  but  they  must  have  ex- 
isted, for  the  spawning  season  was  a  failure.  Hopes  for 
the  following  season,  also,  were  not  realized.  Up  to  this 


Conditions  Governing  Oyster  Growth     107 

time,  oysters  from  the  set  of  1899,  now  two  years  old, 
continued  to  be  taken  from  the  natural  beds  and  planted. 
It  was  thought  that  the  season  of  1902  would  surely 
bring  relief,  but  no  relief  came,  and  the  whole  industry 
began  to  suffer. 

It  may  be  imagined  that  shells  from  the  natural  and 
artificial  beds  were  anxiously  examined  for  newly  at- 
tached oysters  in  the  early  summer  of  1903,  and  that 
alarm  was  felt  when  none  appeared.  The  summer  and 
then  the  fall  wore  away,  and  the  fourth  lean  year  proved 
to  be  the  leanest  of  all.  There  was  no  set  on  the  natural 
beds.  Five  years  previously  the  great  Stratford  and 
Bridgeport  natural  bed  alone  had  yielded  more  than 
400,000  bushels  of  seed  oysters,  and  on  this  year  it  did 
not  produce  a  bushel.  The  matter  had  become  serious 
for  all  northern  planters,  for  seed  from  the  Connecticut 
beds  had  for  years  supported  not  only  the  planted  areas 
of  the  state,  but  also  very  largely  those  of  Massachusetts, 
Rhode  Island,  New  York,  and  New  Jersey.  In  the 
waters  of  these  states,  three  years,  on  an  average,  are 
required  for  the  maturing  of  seed  oysters.  Those  planted 
during  "  the  year  of  the  great  set  "  were  now  marketed, 
and  a  long  delay  in  the  future  was  inevitable. 

Again  no  changes  in  natural  conditions  were  noticed, 
but  the  season  of  1904  brought  a  harvest  of  young 
oysters  that  was  nearly  equal  in  volume  to  that  of  1899. 
This  time  dealers  in  seed  received  large  returns  for  their 
labor.  Planters  everywhere,  not  yet  discouraged,  bought 
every  bushel  that  could  be  produced,  and  the  price  of  seed 
rose  to  an  unprecedentedly  high  level.  More  than  a  dol- 
lar a  bushel  was  often  paid,  and  the  average  price  for  the 
entire  season  was  nearly  seventy-three  cents.  Planters 
were  compelled  to  wait  long  for  returns,  but  the  industry 


io8  Our  Food  Mollusks 

was  safe  once  more.  The  set  of  1905  was  small  and 
much  scattered,  as  was  that  also  of  the  year  following. 
The  oysters  of  the  natural  beds  produced  very  few  young. 
In  a  few  localities  the  set  was  good,  while  neighboring 
beds  were  barren. 

Such  a  sequence  of  events  excites  the  interest  of  a 
biologist  as  well  as  that  of  an  oyster  culturist.  Though 
oystermen  have  observed  no  marked  changes  in  the 
natural  surroundings  of  the  oysters  that  at  one  time  pre- 
vent and  at  another  stimulate  reproduction,  such  changes 
undoubtedly  occur.  It  is  possible  that  a  close  observer 
who  should,  for  a  long  period,  keep  a  daily  record  of 
salinity  and  temperature,  and  all  other  conditions  known 
to  effect  reproduction,  would  be  able  to  offer  a  simple  and 
satisfactory  explanation  of  irregularities  in  the  appear- 
ance of  young  oysters;  or  he  might  be  able  to  discover 
some  other  factor,  now  unknown,  that  causes  the  phenom- 
enon. Whether,  after  having  found  the  explanation,  he 
would  be  able  to  suggest  a  remedy  for  the  present  state 
of  affairs,  is  another  matter ;  but  at  least  it  is  certain  that 
the  remedy  will  not  be  discovered  until  the  cause  of  the 
trouble  is  known. 


CHAPTER  VII 
REARING  OYSTERS  FROM  THE  EGG 

T  has  been  suggested  that  the  set  of  spat  might 
be  made  certain  by  an  artificial  fertilization  of 
the  eggs.  It  is  perhaps  not  to  be  wondered 
at  that  this  possibility  has  for  many  years 
proved  very  alluring,  not  only  to  oystermen,  but  also  to 
some  biologists  who  have  been  interested  in  the  life- 
histories  of  bivalves,  because  of  its  novelty,  and  because  it 
would  .give  so  great  control  over  natural  processes. 
Nearly  every  one  who  has  written  about  oysters  within 
the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  has  referred  to  this  proposed 
method,  and  many  have  become  enthusiastic  over  its  pos- 
sibilities. 

If  a  score  of  millions  of  young  oysters  may  be  brought 
into  being  in  a  tumbler  of  water — as  they  may  with  the 
greatest  ease — and  if  these,  or  any  considerable  number 
of  them,  may  be  caused  to  attach  and  be  reared  to  matur- 
ity, one  of  the  greatest  obstacles  to  oyster  culture  will  be 
overcome.  Truly,  it  is  a  fascinating  suggestion,  but  to 
the  present  time  it  has  become  nothing  more.  Because  it 
has  attracted  so  much  attention,  because  it  still  is  prac- 
tically an  unsolved  problem  for  the  American  oysterman, 
and  because  it  really  is  not  so  necessary  to  the  industry 
as  it  has  been  assumed  to  be,  a  few  rather  unusual  com- 
ments on  it  may  not  be  out  of  place. 

109 


no  Our  Food  Mollusks 

Previous  to  the  year  1879,  the  anatomy  of  the  Amer- 
ican oyster  had  been  studied  very  little,  and  nothing  was 
known  of  its  breeding  habits  or  development.  A  few 
European  biologists  had  found  that  the  oyster  of  their 
northern  coast  was  hermaphroditic,  that  the  eggs  were 
fertilized  and  developed  within  the  body  of  the  parent, 
and  that  they  were  retained  there  for  some  time.  It  was 
supposed  that  the  American  oyster  was  structurally  and 
functionally  very  much  like  its  European  relative. 

In  the  year  mentioned,  the  late  Professor  Brooks  of 
the  Johns  Hopkins  University,  made  some  observations  on 
our  form  that  have  become  classic,  and  in  their  publica- 
tion showed,  among  many  other  things,  that  the  Amer- 
ican oyster  is  unisexual,  and  that  the  eggs  are  fertilized 
and  develop  outside  the  body  of  the  female.  He  also  dis- 
covered that  it  was  possible,  at  will,  to  bring  about  the 
union  of  the  sexual  cells  in  a  dish  of  water,  and  to  ob- 
serve the  process  of  segmentation  and  the  formation  of 
organs.  He  was  not  able,  however,  to  devise  means  of 
keeping  the  swimming  embryos  alive  until  they  had  be- 
come attached. 

In  performing  the  experiment,  Professor  Brooks 
simply  opened  the  ovaries  of  a  mature  female  with  a 
scalpel  and  pressed  the  almost  microscopic  eggs  into  a 
dish  of  water.  From  a  mature  male  he  obtained  a  few 
drops  of  the  spermatic  fluid  in  the  same  way,  and  mixed 
them  with  the  ova,  the  great  majority  of  which  became 
united  with  male  cells. 

Attention  was  at  once  attracted  by  this  experiment. 
In  the  light  of  what  had  been  accomplished  in  fish  culture 
by  means  of  artificial  impregnation,  possibilities  seemed 
great  in  this  case.  Others  took  it  up  with  enthusiasm. 
Before  very  long  what  purported  to  be  an  improvement 


Rearing  Oysters  from  the  Egg          in 

on  the  original  process  was  published.  This  designated 
the  original  method  as  "  barbarous,"  because  crude,  and 
singularly  enough,  it  attracted  much  attention  from  those 
interested  in  oyster  culture,  though  in  reality  it  meant 
nothing. 

It  was  merely  a  detailed  description  of  a  method  of 
procedure  by  which  one  might  be  able  to  press  mature 
eggs  from  the  ovaries  or  the  spermatic  fluid  from  the 
testes  of  oysters  without  actually  rupturing  the  sides  of 
their  bodies,  after  the  manner  of  stripping  the  sexual  cells 
from  the  bodies  of  fishes.  But  even  if  artificial  fertiliza- 
tion had  possessed  some  practical  value,  this  added 
nothing  whatever  to  the  method  employed  by  Professor 
Brooks,  for  unlike  the  fish  that  may  not  be  injured  in  the 
stripping  process,  the  oyster  to  be  treated  must  first  be 
opened  by  severing  the  adductor  muscle  and  tearing  off 
one  valve  of  the  shell,  and  not  so  many  eggs  can  be  ob- 
tained. This  publication  mentioned  some  anatomical 
facts  and  referred  to  implements  that  might  be  employed. 
It  dealt  simply  with  artificial  fertilization,  and  proposed 
no  method  for  the  care  of  the  embryo.  Its  author  almost 
certainly  did  not  regard  it  as  a  real  contribution  to  oyster 
culture — indeed,  he  stated  his  opinion  that  the  artificial 
fertilization  of  oyster  eggs  would  probably  never  be  prac- 
tically important.  Without  doubt,  if  he  had  had  any  idea 
of  the  immense  amount  of  attention  that  it  was  destined 
subsequently  to  attract,  of  the  mistaken  interpretation  it 
was  to  receive,  and  of  the  false  hopes  that  it  was  to 
waken,  he  would  not  have  published  it.  But  matters  of 
that  sort  never  can  be  foreseen,  and  it  was  launched  on 
a  very  remarkable  career. 

Shortly  afterward  there  appeared  in  a  publication  also 
designed  to  encourage  the  oyster  industry  a  further  de- 


112  Our  Food  Mollusks 

velopment  of  the  operation,  by  another  writer.  It  was  as 
impracticable  as  the  one  just  mentioned,  and  perhaps  even 
more  complicated.  After  long-continued  and  patient  ex- 
periment, this  investigator  had  met  only  with  discour- 
agement in  his  attempts  to  carry  the  swimming  embryos 
to  the  period  of  attachment,  and  apparently  not  being  op- 
timistic concerning  the  possibilities  of  artificial  fertiliza- 
tion, he  also  stated  that  he  formulated  this  method  only 
for  those  who  would  persist  in  the  attempt  to  make  some- 
thing of  it.  He  reached  one  conclusion  that  was  sound 
when  he- stated  that  "  it  will  at  any  rate  do  no  harm  to 
liberate  a  few  millions  of  embryos  [obtained]  in  this 
manner  over  a  bed." 

It  is  strange  that  some  person  living  on  the  shore  has 
not  appeared,  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  with 
curiosity  enough  to  crush  a  few  oysters  with  a  stone, 
and  shake  them  in  a  bucket  of  water  in  imitation  of  the 
above  mentioned  experiments.  If  he  had  done  so,  the 
chances  are  that  he  would  have  succeeded  as  well  in  ob- 
taining swimming  embryos,  and  gotten  nearly  as  far 
toward  a  solution  of  the  practical  problem  of  rearing  them 
as  any  one  has  to  the  present. 

The  unfortunate  thing  concerning  these  publications  is 
that  they  have  been  read  and  copied  and  read  again  by 
the  really  intelligent  element  among  oystermen  and  others 
who  were  interested,  until  the  popular  mind  from  New 
England  to  Texas  seems  perfectly  possessed  with  the 
idea  that  the  culture  of  oysters — and  clams,  also — from 
artificially  fertilized  eggs  may,  with  a  little  more  experi- 
ment, become  a  great  achievement  of  science  that  will 
give  wonderful  practical  results.  After  twenty-five  years, 
shell-fish  commission  reports  still  refer  to  it  hopefully. 
The  commissioner  of  one  great  oyster  state,  for  example, 


Rearing  Oysters  from  the  Egg  1 13 

writes  in  his  report  for  1906,  of  these  early  and 
abandoned  efforts  to  obtain  practical  results  from  artifi- 
cial fertilization  as  if  they  were  recent,  and  concludes 
with  the  statement  that  "  Meanwhile  those  engaged  in 
the  industry  are  watching  these  experiments  with  the 
greatest  interest  and  hopefulness."  If  those  engaged  in 
biological  work  are  sometimes  regarded  as  impractical, 
it  was  not  so  in  this  case. 

It  is  true  that  some  advance  has  been  made  beyond  the 
mere  production  of  the  swimming  young.  In  1881, 
Lieutenant  Winslow,  U.  S.  N.,  published  the  statement 
that  he  had  found  it  possible  to  bring  about  the  fertiliza- 
tion of  the  eggs  of  the  Portuguese  oyster,  in  which  as  in 
our  own,  the  sexes  are  separate.  A  year  later  M.  Bou- 
chon-Brandeley,  a  Frenchman,  who  seems  not  to  have 
known  of  Winslow's  statement,  showed  that  he  had  been 
able  not  only  to  cause  the  fertilization  of  the  eggs  of  the 
Portuguese  oyster,  but  also  to  catch  the  young  on  col- 
lectors. 

This  was  a  great  achievement,  but  it  depended  on  a 
condition  that  would  make  it  impracticable  in  American 
oyster  culture.  M.  Bouchon-Brandeley  had  at  his  dis- 
posal a  very  large  fish  pond  excavated  in  a  marsh.  The 
water  in  this  had  a  depth  that  varied  from  three  to  six 
feet.  Several  times  a  week,  for  a  period  of  two  months, 
artificially  fertilized  oyster  eggs  were  placed  in  it,  and  a 
set  was  obtained  on  the  collectors.  He  proved,  too,  that 
the  attached  young  were  really  those  that  had  been  lib- 
erated, and  not  those  borne  into  the  reservoir  from  out- 
side waters.  Since  that  time  a  few  repetitions  of  the  ex- 
periment in  large  French  claires,  seem  also  to  have  been 
successful. 

This  French  experiment  excited  much  interest  in  this 


ii4  Our  Food  Mollusks 

country,  and  many  attempts  were  made  to  repeat  it  here. 
The  first  of  these  was  made  in  1883  by  Professor  John 
A.  Ryder,  in  a  small  pond  on  the  shore  of  the  Chesapeake. 
The  excavation  was  a  little  more  than  twenty  feet  square, 
and  about  three  and  a  half  feet  deep.  Water  from  the 
bay  was  led  into  it  by  a  ditch.  In  order  to  exclude  young 
swimming  oysters  from  the  entering  water,  it  was  caused 
to  flow  through  a  sand  diaphragm  constructed  in  the 
ditch.  After  stakes,  suspending  shell  collectors,  had  been 
placed  in  the  bottom,  artificially  fertilized  oyster  eggs 
were  poured  into  the  pond  from  time  to  time.  About 
seven  weeks  after  the  beginning  of  the  experiment,  the 
collectors  were  found  to  bear  young  oysters  varying 
from  a  fourth  to  three- fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter; 
but  the  set  appears  to  have  been  so  meager  as  to  have 
offered  no  encouragement  to  oyster  culture.  In  sum- 
marizing his  results,  Professor  Ryder  concluded,  "  The 
writer  does  not  think  that  the  rearing  of  oysters  from 
artificially  impregnated  eggs  will  ever  be  a  profitable 
business." 

Similar  results  were  obtained  from  ponds  constructed 
on  the  shores  of  Long  Island  Sound  and  elsewhere,  but 
none  were  really  successful,  and  some  were  entire  failures. 
The  accounts  of  most  of  the  experiments  are  too  vague 
and  imperfect  to  be  valuable.  For  example,  a  "  good 
set  "  was  obtained  in  a  Long  Island  pond  two  hundred 
and  eighty  feet  long  and  one  hundred  feet  wide,  and  con- 
taining from  two  to  six  feet  of  water.  But  we  do  not 
know  the  observer's  idea  of  a  good  set.  From  the  ac- 
count one  must  assume  that  water  was  led  directly  into 
the  pond  from  the  harbor  near  at  hand,  and  that  no  at- 
tempt was  made  to  exclude  swimming  oysters  from  it. 
Some  years  later  that  harbor  was  literally  paved  with 


Rearing  Oysters  from  the  Egg  115 

growing  oysters  from  which  such  young  might  have  been 
derived,  and  perhaps  was  at  that  time  also. 

All  attempts  to  keep  young  oysters  alive  in  tanks  or 
aquaria  until  the  time  of  attachment,  have  proved  to  be 
failures,  though  it  is  claimed  in  one  case,  that  a  few 
spat  became  attached  in  a  tank  containing  somewhat  more 
than  two  hundred  cubic  feet  of  water. 

Laboratory  experiments  have  been  made,  in  which 
water  was  caused  to  flow  steadily  and  rapidly  through  a 
series  of  aquaria.  Filters  of  sand  and  other  substances 
were  provided  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  young  oysters ; 
but  although  the  water  was  rapidly  renewed,  and  the  tem- 
perature kept  constant,  they  perished,  many  of  them  be- 
coming entangled  in  the  filter. 

Thus  it  seems  probable,  from  observations  already 
made,  that  the  chances  are  much  against  the  future  dis- 
covery of  facts  that  may  make  it  practicable  in  America 
to  rear  oysters  from  artificially  fertilized  eggs.  It  has 
been  shown  that  the  young  of  our  oyster  will  become  at- 
tached in  large  and  deep  ponds  so  constructed  as  to  pre- 
vent the  deposition  of  mud  on  the  collectors,  but  most  of 
those  who  have  conducted  the  experiments  admit  that 
they  do  not  solve  the  commercial  problem  involved. 

The  matter  might  appear  in  a  different  light  if  it  had 
been  shown  that  the  set  in  the  reservoirs  was  much 
greater  than  in  open  water.  It  would  be  interesting  to 
know,  also,  if  a  set  could  be  obtained  in  a  pond  from 
artificially  fertilized  eggs  in  one  of  those  occasional 
seasons  in  which  it  more  or  less  completely  fails  on 
outside  oyster  beds.  But  even  if  these  were  demon- 
strated facts,  they  probably  would  be  of  little  commercial 
value. 

Usually  the  natural  set  is  sufficient.     If  it  fails  in  one 


ii6  Our  Food  Mollusks 

locality,  a  neighboring  shore  most  often  produces  enough 
seed  to  meet  the  demand.  When  widespread  failure 
continues  for  three  or  four  years,  an  abundant  supply  of 
seed  certainly  could  be  obtained  from  other  parts  of  the 
coast.  Failure  is  most  common  in  the  North,  but  the 
New  England  planters  might  obtain  seed  in  an  emergency 
from  the  Chesapeake,  the  Carolina  sounds,  or  even  from 
the  Gulf,  where  the  set  is  practically  always  good.  The 
present  difficulty  in  this  is  simply  that  seed  is  not  yet 
gathered  for  sale  in  large  amount  on  these  sections  of  the 
coast.  All  coasts  do  not  fail  at  the  same  time.  During 
the  lean  years  in  Long  Island  Sound  following  the  large 
set  of  1899,  seed  oysters  were  very  numerous  along  the 
shores  of  Pamlico  Sound  and  elsewhere,  and  were  left  un- 
touched. 

When  the  oyster  industry  shall  have  become  as  greatly 
developed  in  other  sections  as  it  now  is  in  the  North, 
and  when  everywhere  the  gathering  of  seed  shall  have 
become  an  extensive  business,  there  will  be  no  possibil- 
ity, with  present  means  of  transportation,  of  suffering  in 
any  section  from  the  lack  of  it.  The  seed  problem,  when- 
ever it  arises,  will,  in  the  future,  be  solved  in  this  man- 
ner. Natural  oyster  seed  is,  and  probably  always  will  be, 
sufficiently  abundant  to  supply  all  demands.  It  is  only 
necessary  to  gather  it  from  natural  beds  or  on  collectors 
and  distribute  it  cheaply,  and  without  doubt  this  can  and 
will  be  done. 

There  have  been  many  ardent  expressions  of  the  hope 
that  the  time  might  soon  arrive  when  long  neck  and  little 
neck  clams  shall  be  reared  for  market  from  artificially 
fertilized  eggs.  It  would  be  well  if  that  hope  might  now 
be  completely  destroyed.  With  these  forms  such  a  prac- 
tice is  an  impossibility.  The  culture  of  clams  by  any 


Rearing  Oysters  from  the  Egg  117 

method  has  not  yet  been  seriously  attempted,  though  sim- 
ple and  successful  methods  have  been  tried  and  proved  ex- 
perimentally. When  these  are  put  into  practice  on  a 
large  scale,  there  will  be  seed  clams  for  planting,  and 
without  lack,  but  they  will  not  have  been  reared  from  arti- 
ficially fertilized  eggs. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
OYSTER   CULTURE   IN   AMERICA 

MORE  or  less  arbitrary  distinction  has  been 
made  between  oyster  planting  and  oyster  cul- 
ture, the  latter  being  defined  as  a  method  by 
means  of  which  the  number  of  oysters  are  in- 
creased by  artificial  means  above  that  produced  under 
natural  conditions  alone.  Except  in  Long  Island  Sound 
and  in  the  region  about  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson,  true 
oyster  culture  is  still  rarely  practised  in  this  country.  In 
Maryland,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  and  the  Gulf  states, 
the  universal  opinion  appears  to  be  that  while  natural 
beds  continue  to  exist,  seed  should  be  obtained  from  them. 
All  these  states  possess  extensive  natural  beds.  In  most 
cases  oysters  are  still  taken  from  them  directly  to  mar- 
ket, and  where  planting  is  practised,  they  furnish  the 
seed.  The  idea  seems  to  prevail,  also,  that  the  New 
England  and  New  York  oystermen  are  driven  to  the 
use  of  collectors  because  their  natural  beds  are  so  nearly 
destroyed. 

It  should  not  escape  attention  in  the  southern  states 
tbat  there  are  some  important  advantages  in  the  method 
of  gathering  spat  upon  artificial  collectors.  The  first  of 
these  is  that  the  number  of  oysters  is  increased.  Such  an 
increase  may  not  seem  necessary  at  present  in  most  places, 
and  the  fear,  sometimes  expressed,  that  it  would  glut  the 

118 


Oyster  Culture  in  America  119 

market,  is  certainly  without  foundation;  for  it  would 
come  gradually,  and  the  market  might  easily  be  made 
much  more  extensive  than  it  now  is.  Nothing  but  good 
could  come  to  the  industry  from  its  gradual  extension  and 
improvement.  Again,  seed  gathered  on  collectors,  while 
somewhat  more  expensive,  is  in  every  way  superior  to 
seed  from  natural  beds.  It  is  of  uniform  size.  When 
planted,  it  all  comes  to  maturity  at  nearly  the  same  time. 
Young  oysters  so  gathered  are  best  able  to  withstand 
changes  in  environment  encountered  when  the  transfer  is 
made  to  planting  grounds  in  different  localities.  The  in- 
crease in  volume,  also,  is  much  more  rapid  and  relatively 
much  greater  when  the  small  seed  from  collectors  is  used. 

On  the  other  hand,  oysters  taken  from  natural  beds 
for  planting,  are  of  all  sizes  and  ages.  To  put  the  seed 
into  good  condition  for  planting,  it  should  be  separated 
from  oysters  of  larger  growth.  To  grade  oysters  taken 
from  a  natural  bed  according  to  size,  requires  much  labor. 
Usually  all  are  planted  together.  The  young  must  grow 
with  the  old,  which  are  often  weakened  by  the  changed 
conditions,  and  grow  slowly.  Many  of  these  old  oysters 
are  ill-shaped,  and  can  be  very  little  improved. 

More  important  still,  the  development  of  a  branch  of 
oyster  culture  for  the  collection  of  seed,  would  give 
stability  to  the  whole  industry.  If  the  natural  set  should 
fail  at  one  point,  seed  might  be  obtained  at  another,  and 
probably  not  distant  locality,  where  it  had  been  collected 
for  sale.  Under  such  conditions  there  would  be  no  lean 
seasons  in  the  oyster  territory. 

Before  the  beginnings  of  oyster  culture  were  made  in 
Europe,  the  method  of  culture  employed  to-day  had  been 
established  in  our  own  country.  From  the  fact  that  the 
young  become  attached  to  any  clean,  hard,  foreign  body 


I2O  Our  Food  Mollusks 

accidentally  present  in  the  water  (Figures  25  to  28),  the 
practice  arose  of  purposely  throwing  objects  on  the  bot- 
tom to  capture  them.  Naturally,  old  oyster  shells  ac- 
cumulated on  the  shore  suggested  themselves  as  collectors, 
and  from  that  day  to  this,  they  have  been  the  most  gen- 
erally used  of  collectors  in  America. 

Shells  are  cheap,  and  are  to  be  had  near  oyster  grounds. 
Firm  bottoms  are  usually  selected  for  spat  collecting,  but 
the  young  are  sometimes  secured  on  soft  ground.  This 
is  possible  because  the  shells  settle  with  their  concave  or 
inner  surfaces  uppermost.  The  edges  of  the  shells  are 
thus  held  above  the  mud,  and  even  when  the  deadly  silt  is 
sufficient  to  kill  those  attached  to  the  upper  faces,  others 
continue  to  exist  on  the  under  side  of  their  margins. 

The  great  disadvantage  in  using  the  oyster  shell  for  a 
collector  is  that  it  is  so  large  that  a  great  many  young 
may  attach  to  it,  and  so  tough  that  it  cannot  be  broken  to 
separate  them.  A  large  cluster  may  thus  arise  on  a  single 
shell,  the  individuals  of  which,  from  crowding,  die  or  be- 
come elongated;  and  it  is  only  after  they  have  attained  a 
considerable  size  that  the  cluster  can  be  broken  apart 
without  great  loss.  But,  on  the  whole,  the  oyster  shell 
has  proved  to  be  the  best  of  available  collectors  on  the  At- 
lantic coast. 

There  are  some  shells  that  are  superior  to  it  in  many 
respects.  Such  are  the  thin,  brittle  shells  of  the  scallop, 
the  mussel,  and  the  small  "  jingle  shells  "  found  on  some 
beaches.  If  these  are  used  where  currents  are  not  strong 
enough  to  bear  them  away,  oysters  that  grow  on  them 
will  break  them  into  bits  as  soon  as  pressure  is  developed 
from  crowding.  In  quiet  waters  these  shells  are  ideal 
collectors  because  of  this  fact  that  the  clusters  formed 
on  them  will  separate  automatically  without  handling ;  but 


FIG.  25. 


FIG.  26. 


FIG.  27. 


FIG.   28. 


FIGS.  25-27.     Objects    to    which    small    oysters    have    attached. 

From   X.   Y.  Forest,   Fish  and  Game   Commission. 
FIG.  28.     An  iron  mast  hoop  from  Chesapeake  Bay  covered   by 

thousands  of  oysters  of  various  sizes.     From  Va.  State  Board 

of  Fisheries. 


Oyster  Culture  in  America  121 

very  unfortunately  they  are  not  to  be  had  in  large  quan- 
tities. 

Large  parts  of  the  Gulf  oyster  field  possess  an  ad- 
vantage over  the  Atlantic  coast  that  some  day  may  prove 
to  be  very  important,  in  its  immense  deposits  of  small 
shells.  These  could  hardly  be  improved  on  for  the  pur- 
pose of  collecting  oyster  spat.  They  are  hard,  but  so 
small  that  clustering  on  them  would  be  impossible.  At 
the  same  time,  they  are  heavy  enough  to  remain  unmoved 
in  a  strong  current.  These  will  be  described  in  another 
place. 

In  certain  parts  of  Long  Island  Sound,  water- worn 
pebbles  or  fragments  of  crushed  rock  are  employed  as 
collectors,  or  "  cultch."  Though  this  material  is  some- 
what more  expensive  than  shells,  its  pieces  are  so  small 
that  oysters  cannot  cluster  on  them.  It  cannot,  how- 
ever, be  used  on  soft  bottoms,  unless  enough  of  it  is  em- 
ployed to  act  both  as  pavement  and  cultch.  On  hard 
bottoms,  from  five  to  six  hundred  bushels  are  spread 
over  an  acre — somewhat  more  than  when  shells  are 
used. 

Rarely  spat  is  collected  over  very  soft  bottoms  where 
the  water  is  shallow.  This  is  accomplished  by  driving, 
the  bases  of  saplings  into  the  mud,  leaving  their  branches 
immersed.  Now  and  then  a  heavy  set  is  gathered  on 
them.  If  oysters  are  allowed  to  grow  where  they  have 
attached,  they  are  likely  to  fall  into  the  mud  because  of 
the  decay  and  softening  of  the  bark.  For  this  reason, 
the  brush  is  usually  removed  soon  after  attachment  is 
accomplished. 

It  is  possible  to  use  many  other  kinds  of  material  for 
cultch.  Scraps  of  tin  and  tin  cans,  for  example,  serve 
the  purpose  well  when  they  are  available,  and  very  sue- 


122  Our  Food  Mollusks 

cess ful  results  have  been  obtained  from  them.  Though 
a  great  many  young  may  attach  to  a  can,  the  corrosive 
action  of  the  salt  water  soon  reduces  it  to  fragments, 
thus  freeing  the  oysters  before  they  have  begun  to  crowd 
each  other  and  eventually  the  cultch  is  entirely  de- 
stroyed. 

It  would  be  possible  to  manufacture  saucer-shaped  col- 
lectors of  thin  sheet-steel,  gypsum,  cement,  tar,  or  as- 
phaltum,  that  would  be  successful  where  currents  were 
not  rapid — the  targets  or  "  clay  pigeons  "  used  by  trap- 
shooters  would  be  ideal  for  the  purpose — but  the  cost,  in 
any  case  would  be  prohibitive,  and  it  is  not  likely 
that  any  form  of  cultch  will  be  discovered  or  invented 
that  will  take  the  place  of  the  shell  collector  in  our 
waters. 

One  of  the  things  learned  early  in  the  practice  of 
oyster  culture  was  that  collectors  may  be  placed  on  the 
bottoms  only  after  the  breeding  season  has  arrived. 
Usually  it  will  not  do  to  plant  the  shells  at  any  conven- 
ient season  during  the  year  to  await  the  appearance  of 
swimming  embryos.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  they 
soon  become  covered  by  a  slime  upon  which  the  young 
oysters  are  unable  to  attach.  The  material  which  thus 
coats  all  exposed  parts  of  the  shells  is  composed  of  ma- 
rine algae,  diatoms,  hydroids,  or  sponges.  These  organ- 
isms are  apparently  able  at  all  seasons  to  establish  them- 
selves, and  their  growth  is  rapid.  It  is  therefore  neces- 
sary to  have  the  collectors  ready  on  shore,  and  to  spread 
them  on  the  collecting  grounds  after  the  oysters  have 
begun  to  spawn.  Spat  then  attaches  before  the  slime 
coat  has  formed. 

If,  during  July,  August,  or  September,  the  spat  has 
failed  to  attach  on  the  collectors,  it  may  be  necessary  to 


Oyster  Culture  in  America  123 

dredge  all  the  cultch  and  expose  it  to  the  air  so  that  the 
slime  organisms  may  decay,  dry,  and  flake  off  the  shells 
before  they  are  again  planted. 

Most  of  the  slime  organisms,  however,  inhabit  rela- 
tively salt  water  only,  and  collections  placed  in  brackish 
water  may  for  a  long  time  remain  free  from  this  organic 
coating.  It  thus  happens  that  young  oysters  become  at- 
tached to  the  shells  of  others  that  may  have  been  grow- 
ing in  brackish  water  for  some  time.  This  explains  why 
the  clustering  of  oysters  is  more  rapid  where  the  water 
is  relatively  fresh,  in  or  near  the  mouths  of  streams, 
than  in  deeper  and  salter  water. 

When  a  farmer  has  plowed  his  field  and  planted  his 
corn,  he  must  still  expend  much  labor  on  the  growing 
plants  if  he  expects  to  harvest  a  good  crop.  Thistles, 
ragweed,  cockles,  and  other  weeds  spring  up  with  the 
corn,  and  if  they  are  not  plowed  under  and  kept  down 
until  the  corn  is  high  enough  to  shade  them,  much  of  the 
crop  becomes  stunted  or  perishes.  If  planted  too  thickly, 
the  struggle  among  the  corn  plants  would  bring  the  same 
results. 

So  it  is  in  rearing  oysters.  Only  labor  insures  a  good 
crop.  This  should  seem  reasonable,  for  one's  experiences 
teach  him  that  he  seldom  receives  benefits  without  work- 
ing for  them.  By  analogy,  he  should  hardly  expect  an 
exception  in  this  case,  but  the  fact  is  that  a  great  many 
who  have  undertaken  the  cultivation  of  oysters  seem  to 
have  had  this  very  expectation.  .Analogy  is  usually  a 
poor  form  of  argument,  but  it  is  safe  in  this  case. 

In  ignorance  of  the  methods  of  the  thrifty  Connecti- 
cut oyster  grower,  many  a  prospective  cultnrist  on  other 
coasts  has  taken  a  few  boat-loads  of  "  coon "  oyster 
clusters  from  a  natural  reef,  dumped  them  on  a  barren 


124  Our  Food  Mollusks 

bottom,  and  left  them  to  work  a  miracle  for  him.  He 
has  then  been  ready  to  declare  that  oyster  culture  is  a 
delusion.  Talk  of  that  sort  is  not  uncommon  to-day  in . 
some  quarters,  but  at  many  points  on  our  long  shore  line, 
that  type  of  oysterman  is  learning  his  lesson  from  his 
more  intelligent  and  more  thrifty  neighbors.  Success  in 
oyster  culture  requires  work. 

There  is  one  extreme  variation  in  this  work  that  de- 
pends partly  on  the  condition  of  the  industry.  The  na- 
ture of  the  labor  required  when  one  collects  and  sells  seed 
and  another  plants,  is  different  from  that  required  of 
one  who  must  depend  entirely  on  his  own  efforts.  Sta- 
bility arises  from  cooperation,  but  the  isolated  oyster 
farmer  is  apt  to  suffer  many  hardships.  But  the  great- 
est variation  in  the  work  necessary  for  success  in  oyster 
culture  arises  from  differences  in  local  natural  conditions. 
It  has  been  proved  by  several  failures  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  follow  successfully  in  Pamlico  Sound  precisely 
the  same  methods  that  have  succeeded  in  Connecticut. 
Oyster  culture  in  Jamaica  Bay  is  not  exactly  like  that 
at  New  Haven.  In  Long  Island  Sound  the  work  on  deep 
beds  is  not  like  that  near  the  shore.  Culture  is,  of  course, 
everywhere  the  same  in  its  main  features,  but  the  neces- 
sary details,  that  are  essential,  vary  with  the  locality, 
and  must  be  discovered  by  experiment.  This  fact  should 
be  kept  in  mind,  especially  on  the  Gulf  coast,  when  the 
time  comes  for  introducing  all  phases  of  oyster  culture 
there.  The  chief  thing  necessary  everywhere  to  assure 
success  is  painstaking  labor. 

An  examination  of  the  labors  of  the  Long  Island 
Sound  oystermen,  who  have  carried  oyster  culture  to 
the  highest  point  of  perfection  in  this  country,  shows 
them  to  be  extensive.  After  the  preliminary  work  of 


Oyster  Culture  in  America  125 

preparing  the  bottom  for  planting,  which  has  already 
been  mentioned,  the  seed  demands  attention.  If  a 
planter  has  obtained  his  seed  from  a  natural  oyster  bed, 
it  will  be  more  or  less  clustered,  and  these  masses  are 
made  up  largely  of  decaying  shells,  of  hydroids,  sponges, 
and  other  organisms.  The  clusters  are  culled,  the  living 
oysters,  of  many  sizes,  being  gathered  together,  and  the 
debris  is  thrown  away. 

When  shells,  or  some  other  form  of  cultch,  have  been 
used  for  collecting  the  young,  they  are  sometimes  left 
without  being  disturbed  until  some  of  the  oysters  have 
grown  to  marketable  size.  In  such  a  case  the  oysters, 
when  dredged,  are  culled,  the  smaller  ones  being  re- 
turned to  the  water  to  complete  their  growth. 

Usually,  however,  the  young  are  all  removed  soon 
after  attachment  and  placed  on  other  bottoms  where  ex- 
perience has  shown  growth  to  be  more  rapid.  The  cul- 
turist  sometimes  plants  them  closely,  for  small  oysters 
require  a  relatively  small  amount  of  food :  but  they  must 
soon  be  removed  and  spread  over  a  greater  territory. 
The  process  of  dredging  and  replanting  is  often  re- 
peated two  or  three  times. 

Those  who  carry  on  the  most  extensive  business,  own 
tracts  in  various  localities.  If  they  have  obtained  a  set 
of  the  young  near  shore,  these  may  be  removed  to  deep- 
water  beds  several  miles  out  in  the  sound.  If  a  culturist 
owns  no  bottom  on  which  a  natural  set  is  likely  to  occur, 
he  sometimes  spreads  his  cultch,  and  on  it  places  "  breed- 
ers " — mature  oysters  about  to  discharge  the  sexual  cells. 
This  is — or  should  be — done  with  due  regard  to  the 
salinity  and  temperature  of  the  water,  and  some  time  be- 
fore the  breeding  season  normally  begins,  in  order  that 
the  oysters  may  become  accustomed  to  their  new  sur- 


126  Our  Food  Mollusks 

foundings.  From  twenty-five  to  fifty  bushels  of  these 
are  usually  placed  on  an  acre. 

Seed  oysters  having  been  spread  on  beds  where  they 
may  complete  their  growth,  sometimes  require  little  at- 
tention; but  usually  their  safety  depends  on  constant 
vigilance  and  care.  Much  also  depends  upon  the  locality. 
In  the  year  1882  several  of  the  Connecticut  oystermen 
prepared  beds  in  deep,  salt  water  far  from  the  shore. 
When  oysters  planted  on  these  began  to  be  removed,  it 
was  found  that  great  numbers  of  starfish  were  present, 
and  in  succeeding  years  they  became  more  and  more 
numerous.  This  was  the  beginning  of  an  affliction  that 
has  continued  to  the  present  time.  Starfish  are  terribly 
destructive  to  oysters,  the  soft  parts  of  which  they  con- 
sume, and  no  really  effective  means  of  destroying  them 
has  been  devised.  Other  enemies,  to  be  referred  to  later, 
also  demand  the  oysterman's  attention,  especially  in  salt 
waters. 

There  is  also  work  to  be  done  on  the  brackish  water 
beds.  Much  of  this  arises  from  the  spawning  of  the 
oysters  themselves,  which  are  more  prolific  in  such 
waters.  An  oysterman  plants  young  that  must  grow 
three  or  four  years  before  being  marketed.  During  the 
following  July  a  great  many  embryos  may  appear.  The 
shells  of  the  planted  oysters  may  be  quite  free  from 
slime,  as  often  happens  in  brackish  water.  The  spat 
collects  on  them  and  begins  to  grow.  In  another  year  or 
two  the  beds  are  covered  with  clustered  oysters  which,  if 
allowed  to  remain  longer,  tend  to  destroy  each  other. 
Survivors  will  be  stunted,  ill-shaped,  and  poor.  The  en- 
tire contents  of  clustered  beds  must  be  dredged  and  culled, 
and  a  part  of  it  removed  to  other  bottoms. 

In  the  care  of  planted  oysters  there  are  still  other  con- 


Oyster  Culture  in  America  127 

ditions  that  often  call  for  labor.  Two  or  three  varieties 
of  sea-weeds  frequently  appear  on  the  bottoms,  often 
attached  to  the  oysters  themselves.  In  a  current,  these 
are  matted  down  so  as  to  interfere  with  the  feeding  pro- 
cess, and  if  allowed  to  grow,  may  become  a  serious 
menace.  Strong  currents  frequently  drag  rubbish  of 
various  kinds  on  to  the  beds,  and  waves  from  heavy 
winds  may  cause  the  bottoms  to  shift.  Oysters  in  this 
way  are  frequently  "  sanded,"  but  even  if  completely 
covered,  they  would  continue  to  live  for  some  days,  so 
they  may  be  saved  if  cared  for  in  time.  All  of  these 
conditions  the  successful  culturist  must  heed.  There 
is  nothing  to  be  done  but  to  dredge  the  entire  crop,  scrap- 
ing the  bottom  clean.  Then  sea-weed  and  rubbish  are 
removed,  and  the  oysters  are  returned. 

For  still  another  reason  it  is  often  of  advantage  to 
disturb  the  oysters.  There  are  bottoms  on  which  they 
increase  in  size,  but  fail  to  fatten.  Indeed,  on  most  of 
the  deep  water  beds,  oysters  do  not  attain  so  favorable 
a  condition  as  in  fresher  water.  In  order  to  improve 
them  as  much  as  possible  before  marketing  them,  many 
culturists  remove  their  oysters  in  the  spring  from  the 
less  favorable  deep  water  to  warmer  and  fresher  shore 
beds,  where  fattening  rapidly  takes  place  during  the 
summer.  Such  oysters  are  callel  "  harbor  plants,"  and 
though  now  often  in  a  more  favorable  position  for  strain- 
ing the  bacillus  of  typhoid  out  of  the  water,  they  are 
plump,  and  are  sold  for  a  higher  price  than  that  obtained 
for  the  "  sound  stock." 

Perhaps  it  has  appeared  from  these  statements  that 
the  oyster-culturist's  year  is  not  made  up  of  days  of  idle 
waiting  for  his  crop  to  mature.  He  has  his  "  slack  sea- 
son," to  be  sure.  In  some  years  starfish  may  give  him 


128  Our  Food  Mollusks 

little  trouble.  The  set  of  spat  may  be  so  abundant  as 
to  make  planting  operations  easy  and  certain  of  success. 
But  there  are  always  strenuous  weeks  of  harvesting;  rub- 
bish and  sea-weed  may  collect  on  the  crop,  or  a  hurri- 
cane may  descend  upon  it  at  any  time;  and  he,  like  the 
farmer,  must  be  observant  and  always  prepared  to  battle 
against  enemies  and  the  weather  if  he  expects  to  be 
successful.  Rewards  are  often  large,  but  are  only  to 
be  had  as  the  result  of  much  labor. 

It  will  be  interesting  to  compare  the  labors  of  the 
oyster  and  clam  culturists — when  the  latter  come  into 
being.  The  returns  to  the  clam  culturist  undoubtedly 
will  be  large,  and  the  labor  that  he  will  be  compelled  to 
put  on  his  fields  will  be  trifling  as  compared  with  that  of 
the  oysterman. 


CHAPTER  IX 

IMPLEMENTS  AND  THEIR  USES— BOATS— 

THE  PREPARATION  OF  OYSTERS 

FOR  MARKET 

HE  expense  to  the  oyster  culturist  of  provid- 
ing himself  with  appliances  for  carrying  on 
his  trade  is  slight  as  compared  with  that  in 
many  other  fields  of  labor.  He  must  have 
boats,  large  or  small  as  the  magnitude  of  his  undertaking 
demands.  But  besides  these,  there  is  little  else  that  he 
must  purchase  if  he  does  not  himself  attempt  to  market 
his  crop.  Oysters  are  removed  from  the  bottom  by 
means  of  tongs  and  dredges,  the  former  being  used  in 
shallow  and  the  latter  in  deep  water. 

Tongs  are  of  the  same  general  pattern  everywhere  on 
the  coast.  As  shown  in  Figure  48,  tw©  long  wooden 
shafts  or  handles  are  crossed  like  scissors  blades  and 
held  together  with  a  "  pin,"  or  "pivot."  The  lower 
end  of  each  shaft  bears  an  iron  head  fashioned  like  a 
garden  rake.  Just  above  this  is  a  basket-like  arrange- 
ment of  small  iron  rods  that  prevents  oysters  from  falling 
when  the  two  rakes  are  brought  together. 

Tonging  is  done  from  boats  the  length  of  which 
seldom  exceeds  twenty-five  feet.  These  are  usually  fitted 
with  a  plank  on  either  side  level  with  the  gunwale  and 
extending  from  stem  to  stern.  On  this  the  tonger  stands 
and  lowers  the  head  of  the  tongs  to  the  bottom  (Figures 

129 


130  Our  Food  Mollusks 

29  and  30).  With  his  hands  on  the  shafts  three  or  four 
feet  above  the  water,  he  opens  them,  then  pressing  down- 
ward on  the  bottom,  brings  them  together  again.  This 
operation  is  repeated  several  times  until  the  weight  in- 
dicates that  the  rakes  have  gathered  a  full  load  of  shells. 
The  tongs  are  lifted  and  the  load  is  allowed  to  fall  on 
the  culling  board  placed  across  the  boat  back  of  its 
middle. 

The  sizes  of  tongs  vary  with  the  depth  of  water  in 
which  they  are  used.  The  shortest  have  a  length  of 
about  twelve  feet.  It  is  obvious  that  a  heavier  load  may 
be  lifted  from  shallow  than  from  deep  bottoms ;  so  in 
order  to  make  the  area  of  the  "  grab  "  sufficiently  large 
the  heads  of  the  short  tongs  are  usually  about  thirty 
inches  wide. 

To  the  inexperienced,  ten  or  fifteen  feet  might  seem  to 
be  the  greatest  depth  at  which  oysters  could  be  taken  by 
this  means,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact,  they  can  be  tonged  in 
thirty  feet  of  water.  As  a  rule,  however,  tongs  are  sel- 
dom used  in  water  more  than  twenty-five  feet  in  depth, 
and  the  greater  number  are  taken  at  a  depth  of  less  than 
fifteen  feet. 

Tongs  are  obviously  the  implements  of  the  poorer 
oystermen,  who  have  not  the  means  to  purchase  large 
boats  from  which  dredges  may  be  used.  But  they  are 
also  frequently  used  in  oyster  culture  by  those  whose 
operations  are  extensive;  for  oysters  are  often  planted 
in  water  too  shallow  to  float  dredging  boats.  On  the 
shallow  natural  beds  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  Pamlico  Sound, 
and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  a  great  many  men  make  a  living 
by  the  use  of  oyster  tongs.  The  figures  will  give  an  idea 
of  their  occupation. 

When  oysters  are  greatly  scattered  in  shallow  water, 


FIG.  29.     A  fleet  of  gasoline  tonging  boats  in  Hampton  Roads, 
Va.     From  State  Board  of  Fisheries,  Va. 


FIG.    30.     Tongers    and    cullers    at   work   on    Pamlico    Sound, 
N.  C.     From  the  U.  S.  F.  C.  Report. 


>     Of   THE 

UNIVERSE 


Implements  and  Their  Uses  131 

they  are  sometimes  secured  one  at  a  time  by  light  tongs 
having  very  narrow  heads.  These  are  called  "  nippers," 
and  can  only  be  used  where  the  water  is  clear  and  very 
quiet. 

A  modification  of  the  principle  of  the  tongs  is  em- 
ployed for  use  in  deep  water.  There  are  many  deep  beds 
in  the  Chesapeake  and  its  larger  tributaries  that  are  in- 
accessible even  to  dredges.  Such  beds  may  easily  be 
reached  by  the  so-called  patent  tongs,  invented  by  a 
Maryland  oysterman  in  1887.  Every  one  is  familiar 
with  the  mechanical  principle  involved  in  a  pair  of 
ice-tongs.  The  iceman  lifts  on  the  handles  to  secure  a 
grip  on  the  load  to  be  lifted,  and  the  heavier  the  piece 
of  ice,  the  tighter  this  grip  becomes.  Imagine  that  rake- 
heads,  with  teeth  pointed  inward,  are  fastened  to  the 
ends  of  such  a  pair  of  tongs  where  the  calks  or  spurs  are 
placed,  and  one  has  all  but  a  few  details  of  the  patent 
oyster  tongs.  A  rope  is  tied  to  each  handle,  and  these 
are  fastened  to  a  single  rope  a  few  feet  above.  Before 
being  lowered  into  the  water,  the  tongs  'are  locked  open 
by  a  simple  device.  This  lock  is  disengaged  when  the 
weight  of  the  tongs  rests  on  the  bottom,  and  a  pull  on  the 
rope  causes  the  rakes  to  come  together.  The  heavier 
the  load,  the  tighter  it  is  grasped.  In  order  to  scrape 
the  bottom  with  force,  weights  are  attached,  or  the  tongs 
themselves  are  made  of  heavy  material.  This  necessi- 
tates the  employment  of  a  windlass.  The  area  of  the 
bottom  scraped,  or  the  extent  of  the  "  grab  "  of  the  tongs 
now  manufactured  is  one  square  yard,  and  the  imple- 
ment has  proved  to  be  very  useful  where  oysters  are 
numerous. 

The  dredge  is  much  the  most  important  implement 
used  in  American  oyster  culture.  It  does  its  work  so 


132  Our  Food  Mollusks 

thoroughly  and  so  rapidly  that  it  sustains  a  never-end- 
ing chorus  of  protest  against  its  employment  all  along 
the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts.  Naturally,  this  is  largely 
from  the  tongers  engaged  in  the  laborious  task  of  com- 
peting with  it  on  what  seem  to  be  very  unequal  terms. 
But  the  dredge  is  also  sometimes  condemned  by  much 
more  influential  and  generally  well-meaning  persons, 
who  see  in  it  a  menace  to  the  industry,  at  least  where  it 
depends  on  natural  beds.  State  legislatures  have  lis- 
tened with  attention,  and  the  influence  on  them  of  this 
cry  against  the  dredge  is  still  recorded  in  the  oyster  laws 
of  almost  every  coast  state. 

Many  now  living  may  remember  the  profound  dis- 
turbance in  the  minds  of  some,  caused  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  such  labor-saving  devices  as  the  combined  reaper 
and  binder  for  harvesting  grain.  They  seemed  inevita- 
bly to  involve  the  end  for  the  farm  laborer.  To  persons 
who  formerly  held  this  view  of  the  matter,  the  frantic 
appeals  for  help  that  each  year  come  out  of  Kansas  when 
the  grain  harvest  approaches,  must  have  a  strange  sound. 

The  oyster  dredge  bears  much  the  same  relation  to 
tongs  that  the  reaper  does  to  the  old-fashioned  cradle. 
The  reaper  gathers  the  crop,  but  the  cradle  is  still  useful 
on  small  areas,  and  on  the  edges  of  large  fields.  Oyster 
culture  can  never  be  what  it  should  be  without  the  unre- 
stricted use  of  the  dredge.  If  the  industry  is  to  depend 
on  natural  beds,  it  may  be  well  to  restrict  its  use,  but 
there  is  no  part  of  the  coast  where  these  conditions 
should  be  allowed  to  exist.  On  the  northern  coast,  where 
states  have  been  so  educated  in  the  matter  as  to  have 
perceived  the  wisdom  of  leasing — or  better  still,  of  sell- 
ing— oyster  bottoms  to  culturists,  there  has  been  granted 
with  the  property  right,  the  equally  sensible  right  to 


Implements  and  Their  Uses  133 

work  upon  the  property  without  greater  restrictions  than 
are  placed  on  the  farmer  who  is  allowed  to  cut  his  grain 
with  a  reaper.  This  seems  like  common  sense  and  com- 
mon justice,  but  there  are  still  those  who  are  strongly 
prejudiced  against  the  use  of  the  dredge. 

But  the  old  conditions  are  fast  passing.  There  was 
too  often  just  cause  for  complaint  against  the  use  of  the 
dredge  when  state  laws  set  apart  some  natural  beds  for 
the  use  of  tongers  only,  and  others  for  dredgers.  But 
now  that  any  citizen,  in  most  states,  may  lease  or  buy 
bottoms  in  deep  or  shallow  water,  to  which  he  confines 
his  operations,  and  in  which  he  is  supposed  to  have  the 
protection  of  the  state,  he  should  be  allowed  to  handle 
his  own  crop  as  he  chooses,  so  long  as  he  injures  the 
property  of  no  one  else  by  so  doing. 

The  implement  is  very  simple  in  construction.  In  the 
foreground  of  Figure  31,  a  dredge  is  shown  lying  on  the 
deck  of  a  North  Carolina  dredging  boat.  It  consists  of 
a  rectangular  iron  frame  from  the  corners  of  which 
rods  lead  forward  and  join  at  a  distance  of  about  three 
feet  from  the  frame.  The  towing  rope  is  attached  at  this 
point.  Fastened  all  around  the  frame  is  a  sack  con- 
structed of  iron  rings  which  is  dragged  behind  it.  The 
lower  side  of  the  frame  that  rests  on  the  bottom,  is 
sometimes  provided  with  teeth  that  turn  the  oysters  up- 
ward into  the  sack. 

The  size  of  the  dredge  varies  greatly.  The  one  just 
referred  to  is  about  three  feet  wide,  and  probably  weighs 
about  thirty  pounds.  This  is  near  the  minimum  size.  In 
Chesapeake  Bay  such  dredges  are  employed  on  boats 
having  a  capacity  of  from  three  to  four  hundred  bushels. 
On  larger  boats  dredges  more  than  five  feet  wide  are 
used.  These  weigh  about  one  hundred  pounds  and  will 


134  Our  Food  Mollusks 

hold  five  bushels  or  more.  The  average  capacity  of 
dredges  used  on  steam  vessels  by  Connecticut  oystermen 
on  private  grounds,  is  ten  or  twelve  bushels,  but  some 
are  of  immense  size,  and  capable  of  gathering  thirty 
bushels  at  a  haul. 

Almost  everywhere  at  present,  except  in  Long  Island 
Sound,  sailboats  are  used  for  towing  the  dredge.  There, 
the  more  powerful  and  more  reliable  steam  power  has 
come  into  general  use,  and  it  probably  will  not  be  long 
before  the  example  of  the  northern  planter  will  be  fol- 
lowed elsewhere,  though  the  cheaper,  if  more  primitive, 
sail  power  may  never  be  entirely  abandoned. 

Two  masted,  schooner-rigged  vessels,  such  as  is  shown 
in  the  illustration,  have  long  been  employed  in  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  in  Pamlico  Sound,  and  elsewhere.  These 
carry  two  dredges  that  are  hauled  by  hand  winches  or 
windlasses  bolted  to  the  deck  back  of  the  foremast.  Op- 
posite each  windlass,  three  or  four  feet  of  the  rail  are 
removed,  and  level  with  the  deck  there  is  placed  a  bar 
or,  more  commonly,  a  roller,  over  which  the  dredge  rope 
plays.  When  the  oyster  beds  are  reached,  dredges  are 
thrown  over  and  dragged  until  it  is  supposed  that  they 
have  been  filled. 

Each  windlass  has  two  long  handles  and  is  operated 
by  four  men.  The  dredge,  with  its  load,  is  hauled  upon 
the  deck  and  emptied.  From  natural  beds  a  great 
amount  of  waste  material  is  brought  up  with  the  oysters. 
When  dredging  is  done  in  the  daytime,  the  dredge  load 
is  at  once  culled,  the  oysters  being  stowed  below  the  deck, 
and  the  waste  thrown  overboard.  At  night,  culling  is 
dispensed  with  until  daylight. 

When  the  bed  has  been  crossed,  the  boat  tacks,  haul- 
ing the  dredges  across  once  more.  In  this  way  the  work 


FIG.  31.  A  North  Carolina  dredging  schooner,  showing 
dredge  and  hand-windlass.  From  Dr.  Caswell  Grave  in 
U.  S.  F.  C.  Report. 


FIG.  32.  Drawing  a  more  modern  dredge  by  steam  power  on 
the  New  York  oyster  grounds.  From  a  Report  of  the  N.  Y. 
Forest,  Fish  and  Game  Commission. 


Implements  and  Their  Uses  135 

in  the  Chesapeake  is  continued  day  after  clay  until  a 
load  has  been  secured.  This  usually  means  two  or  three 
weeks  of  dredging.  The  boat  then  puts  in  to  market. 

While  the  dredges  used  by  the  oystermen  of  Long 
Island  Sound  are  of  usual  pattern,  their  operation  has 
been  greatly  perfected.  On  many  of  the  modern  steam 
vessels  as  many  as  four  of  them  are  handled  simultane- 
ously, and  the  winches,  instead  of  being  operated  labor- 
iously by  hand,  are  controlled  by  steam  power.  By  this 
means  dredges  are  drawn  in  very  rapidy.  They  are  usu- 
ally much  larger  than  those  drawn  by  hand,  and  the 
number  of  the  boat's  crew  is  greatly  decreased. 

Reference,  has  been  made  to  the  tonging  boat,  which 
is  of  much  the  same  pattern  everywhere.  Every  one  is 
familiar  with  the  common  schooner  and  sloop  rigs. 
These  are  found  on  the  oyster  grounds  from  New  Eng- 
land to  Texas.  The  hulls  of  these  boats  of  course  vary 
in  size,  in  depth  of  keel,  and  the  use  of  center-board,  con- 
forming to  the  nature  of  the  oyster  region.  A  brief 
reference  to  an  unusual  and  specialized  form  may  not 
be  out  of  place. 

At  the  present  time  in  Louisiana,  many  schooners  and 
sloops  are  employed  by  oystermen,  and  under  the  intel- 
ligent and  progressive  management  now  in  force,  the 
more  modern  power  boat  is  being  added  to  the  oyster 
fleet.  But  not  long  ago  the  oyster  boats  were  all  of  a 
class  seldom  seen  on  our  coasts,  which,  from  its  Medi- 
terranean rig,  was  known  as  the  "  lugger."  A  few  of 
these  boats  may  still  be  seen  on  the  oyster  grounds. 

The  lugger,  varying  from  sixteen  to  forty  feet  in 
length,  is  decked  over  fore  and  aft,  the  center  being  left 
open.  There  is  one  long  mast  carrying  a  large,  nearly 
square  sail  that  is  suspended  frorn.  a  long  yard.  The 


136  Our  Food  Mollusks 

lower  corners  of  the  sail  are  secured  at  the  bow  and 
stern  on  travelers,  so  as  to  work  across  the  deck.  There 
is  no  jib.  In  sailing  close  to  the  wind,  yard  and  sail  are 
drawn  so  as  to  lie  nearly  parallel  to  the  keel.  It  is  said 
that  these  boats  are  superior  even  to  schooners  and  sloops 
in  beating  to  windward.  Before  the  wind,  yard  and  sail 
are  swung  across  the  boat.  They  are  fast  sailers,  and 
may  be  handled  quickly;  but  the  long  yard  is  apt  to  give 
trouble  in  squalls,  and  it  is  said  that  the  danger  of  cap- 
sizing is  great. 

The  most  highly  specialized  craft  employed  in  the 
oyster  industry,  are  to  be  found  in  Long  Island  Sound, 
and  vessels  of  a  similar  sort  will  doubtless  eventually  be 
employed  over  much  of  the  oyster  territory.  As  early 
as  1874,  an  oyster  planter  of  Nor  walk,  Conn.,  put  steam 
power  into  one  of  his  sloops  for  the  purpose  of  towing 
oyster  dredges.  The  advantages  of  steam  power  in  this 
work  would  seem  to  be  obvious.  It  may  be  used  as  an 
auxiliary  to  sail  power,  the  latter  being  employed  alone 
in  weather  favorable  for  it.  It  may  be  used  on  calm 
days,  and  is  at  command  at  all  seasons,  and  in  every 
sort  of  weather.  Its  power  may  be  made  as  great  as 
desired,  and  is  easily  controlled.  Steam  may  be  used  not 
only  for  propelling  the  boat,  but  also  for  drawing  in 
the  dredges.  But  the  expense  of  installing  boilers  and 
engines  is  relatively  great,  and  this,  with  operating  ex- 
penses, may  have  convinced  oystermen  at  this  time  that 
steam  would  not  be  profitable.  At  any  rate,  when  Cap- 
tain Decker  began  to  convert  his  sloop  into  an  oyster 
steamer,  he  was  ridiculed  by  all  the  oystermen  in  the 
region,  and  the  failure  of  his  experiment  was  predicted 
with  the  utmost  confidence. 

But,  contrary  to  all  expectations,  its  success  was  im- 


Fi<;.  33.     Steam     dredging    vessel     on     Long     Island     Sound. 
From  a  Report  of  the  R.  I.  Shell-fish  Commission. 


FIG.  34.     Steam  dredging  vessel  owned  at  New  Haven.    From 
a  Report  of  the  R.  I.  Shell-fish  Commission. 


FIG.  3S.  Xew  York  steam  dredging-  vessel  towing  the 
dredges.  From  a  Report  of  the  Forest,  Fish  and  Game 
Commission. 


Of   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


Implements  and  Their  Uses  137 

mediate  and  complete.  Captain  Decker  owned  about 
sixty  acres  of  bottom  in  deep  water  that  he  had  been  un- 
able to  use,  largely  because  he  could  not  keep  it  free 
from  starfish.  With  his  new  boat,  that  proved  to  be  able 
to  operate  large  dredges  rapidly,  he  thoroughly  cleaned 
his  ground,  and  after  oysters  were  placed  on  it,  was  able 
to  handle  them  easily  and  to  keep  down  the  numbers  of 
their  foes.  The  result  of  this  first  attempt  to  use  steam 
power  on  an  oyster  boat  in  America  was  a  tenfold  in- 
crease of  the  boat's  capacity  for  dredging  oysters  with- 
out great  increase  in  operating  expenses. 

When  this  fact  was  realized,  as  it  was  immediately, 
a  great  cry  was  raised  by  all  the  oystermen  along  the 
shore  against  the  employment  of  steam  in  the  oyster  in- 
dustry. The  state  legislature  became  convinced  that 
something  should  be  done  to  reassure  these  conserva- 
tive petitioners,  so  it  prohibited  the  use  of  steam  power 
on  the  natural  beds,  and  that  prohibition  remains  to-day 
in  Connecticut. 

But  a  revolution  in  American  oyster  culture  had  been 
inaugurated,  and  has  resulted  in  an  enormous  increase 
in  the  number  of  oysters  produced,  and  in  the  reclama- 
tion of  much  of  the  deeper  area  of  Long  Island  Sound. 
Steamers  to  be  used  in  oyster  culture  at  once  began  to 
appear  in  Connecticut  and  New  York,  and  have  steadily 
increased  in  number,  size,  and  efficiency  ever  since. 

The  little  converted  sloop  "  Early  Bird "  measured 
but  seven  tons.  In  1880  there  were  six  steam  oyster 
vessels  in  Connecticut,  one  of  them  measuring  thirty 
tons,  net.  Five  years  later  the  number  had  increased  to 
forty-eight  vessels,  averaging  twenty-seven  tons — but 
three  tons  less  than  the  greatest  in  1880.  By  1887  there 
were  fifty-seven  oyster  steamers  in  the  Connecticut  field, 


138  Our  Food  Mollusks 

but  for  some  years  following,  the  increase  was  very  slow. 

By  this  time  there  were  probably  as  many  steam  ves- 
sels as  the  condition  of  the  industry  in  Connecticut  de- 
manded, and  they  increased  in  number  slowly  as  it  grew. 
Growth  has  been  steady,  and  each  season  sees  a  few 
steamers  added  to  the  fleet.  In  1903  there  were  about 
one  hundred  of  them;  in  1906  one  hundred  and  fourteen, 
and  that  rate  of  increase  may  be  maintained  for  some 
time. 

The  average  displacement  of  the  steamers  employed 
by  the  oyster  culturists  to-day  is  nearly  thirty  tons,  net. 
Several  of  them  recently  built  have  a  displacement  of 
more  than  a  hundred  and  forty  tons,  or  nearly  ten  times 
the  average  size.  The  tendency  seems  to  be  toward  the 
construction  of  larger  and  more  powerful  vessels. 

It  should  be  stated  that  there  is  still  much  work  on 
the  oyster  field  that  can  be  done  by  schooners,  sloops, 
and  small  boats,  and  that  there  has  also  been  a  steady 
increase  in  their  number. 

This  demonstration  of  the  utility  of  steam  in  northern 
waters  should  be  of  great  value  to  culturists  in  those 
fields  where  steam  vessels  are  not  yet  in  use.  So  much 
of  the  success  of  northern  oyster  culture  has  depended  on 
the  development  of  these  boats  that  it  is  of  prime  im- 
portance that  their  construction  and  the  nature  of  their 
work  should  be  studied  by,  and  generally  known  to,  the 
culturists  in  the  Chesapeake,  the  Carolina  sounds,  and  in 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Unfortunately,  publications  on  the 
subject  are  few  and  meager. 

The  great  superiority  of  steam-driven  vessels  may  be 
indicated  by  a  brief  statement  of  what  one  of  them  is 
actually  able  to  accomplish.  This  vessel  is  of  seventy-three 
tons  displacement.  It  has  a  length  of  eighty-three  feet, 


Implements  and  Their  Uses  139 

a  beam  of  twenty  feet,  and  a  depth  of  six  feet.  It  car- 
ries a  crew  of  eight  men.  Its  original  cost  was  sixteen 
thousand  dollars,  and  a  hundred  dollars  a  month  pur- 
chases fuel,  water,  and  oil. 

The  carrying  capacity  of  the  vessel  is  twenty -five  hun- 
dred bushels  of  oysters,  and  it  is  able  to  dredge  eighteen 
hundred  bushels  a  day  from  beds  under  thirty-five  feet 
of  water.  In  order  to  equal  a  single  day's  catch  by  this 
vessel,  it  is  stated  that  it  would  be  necessary  for  the  sail- 
ing vessel  of  average  size  employed  by  the  oystermen  in 
Long  Island  Sound,  carrying  a  crew  of  three  men,  to 
dredge  the  same  bottoms  for  nearly  two  and  a  half 
months. 

The  fearful  tortures  to  which  the  crews  of  many 
dredging  vessels  in  the  Chesapeake  have  in  the  past  been 
subjected  by  their  masters,  form  an  interesting  subject 
that  will  be  referred  to  later.  To  these  cruelties  have 
been  added  the  sufferings  caused  by  exposure  to  winter 
weather.  Under  the  most  humane  treatment,  the  lot  of 
the  crew  of  a  dredger  with  exposed  decks  is  a  hard  one. 
In  the  North  especially,  where  winters  are  so  severe,  the 
limit  of  human  endurance  is  required  of  the  crew  of  an 
open  boat.  In  contrast,  life  on  a  modern  steam  dredger 
is  pleasant.  It  is  housed  over  so  as  to  afford  almost 
complete  protection  to  the  crew,  no  matter  what  the 
weather  may  be.  The  four  dredges  are  hauled  by  steam 
winches,  and  powerful  propelling  engines  make  frequent 
visits  to  port  a  certainty. 

One  extremely  important  advantage  possessed  by  the 
steam  dredger  that  should  not  be  overlooked,  is  that  its 
owner  is  able  at  all  times  during  the  winter  to  deliver 
his  oysters  when  he  has  promised  to  do  so.  If  he  is  to 
dredge  them  from  deep  water  and  in  the  middle  of  the 


140  Our  Food  Mollusks 

sound,  neither  ice  nor  storm  can  prevent  him.  The 
work  is  done  so  rapidly  that  dates  may  be  set  for  the  de- 
livery of  large  quantities.  Market  demands  may  be  met 
at  once.  On  the  other  hand,  the  market  is  not  glutted, 
as  is  the  case  when  several  sailing  vessels,  that  have  been 
weeks  in  obtaining  a  cargo,  happen  to  reach  port  to- 
gether. 

The  recent  increase  in  the  number  of  gasoline  boats 
everywhere  on  the  coast  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
phenomena  that  the  shore  has  witnessed  in  many  de- 
cades. Naturally,  these  boats  have  become  very  useful 
in  the  oyster  industry.  But  fuel  for  the  new  motors, 
whether  gasoline  or  alcohol,  will  be  too  expensive  for 
large  boats,  and  steam  will  have  no  rival  here. 

In  many  instances,  the  preliminary  work  of  prepar- 
ing oysters  for  market,  begins  when  they  are  dredged. 
In  the  Chesapeake,  for  example,  where  dredging  for 
market  until  the  present  time  has  been  done  only  on  nat- 
ural beds,  state  law  requires  the  culling  of  oysters  on  the 
beds  in  order  that  empty  shells  and  young  oysters  may  be 
returned  to  the  bottoms.  This  culling  makes  handling 
more  easy  and  rapid  for  the  dealers  who  receive  the 
cargo.  In  other  localities,  culling  of  the  material  taken 
from  private  beds  may,  for  various  reasons,  be  done  on 
shore. 

Oysters  are  usually  very  muddy  when  taken  from  the 
bottom,  and  must  be  cleaned.  On  the  steam  dredgers  the 
greater  part  of  the  mud  is  removed  before  the  dredge 
load  has  reached  the  deck.  The  older  winches  or  wind- 
lasses were  provided  with  what  is  called  a  positive  clutch 
— the  same  device  that  is  employed  on  well  windlasses 
to  prevent  them  from  turning  back  and  lowering  the 
bucket.  Now  what  is  called  a  friction  clutch  is  em- 


FIG.  36.  A  powerful  ice-breaking  steamer  owned  at  New 
Haven,  Conn.  This  vessel  is  capable  of  dredging  1,200 
bushels  of  oysters  an  hour  in  water  forty  feet  deep.  From 
a  Report  of  the  Conn.  Shell-fish  Commission. 


FIG.  37.  The  largest  of  the  northern  oyster  fleet.  This  ves- 
sel, drawing  six  huge  dredges,  has  a  capacity  of  8,500 
bushels  of  ovsters  a  dav  in  fortv  feet  of  water. 


Of   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


Implements  and  Their  Uses  141 

ployed.  It  may  be  only  partially  released  and  acts  as  a 
brake  to  stop  the  descent  of  the  dredge.  A  load  of 
oysters  is  drawn  up  close  to  the  surface  of  the  water, 
then  suddenly  dropped,  checked,  and  raised  again,  this 
being  repeated  until  the  mud  is  washed  out. 

On  reaching  the  shore,  the  culled  oysters  are  sorted 
into  the  various  grades  that  are  required  by  the  whole- 
sale trade. 

Before  being  marketed,  oysters  are  almost  invariably 
placed  for  a  time  in  fresh  water.  The  danger  to  the 
consumer  resulting  from  this  process,  as  it  is  usually 
carried  on,  is  great  because  the  fresh  water  is  so  often 
contaminated  with  sewage.  Even  if  it  were  clean,  the 
procedure  is  not  defensible,  for  its"  shief  object  is  to 
bloat  the  oysters  so  that  they  will  fill  a  larger  measure. 
For  freshening,  they  are  placed  in  flat  scows  or  floats  and 
towed  into  a  stream,  or  are  unloaded  from  the  dredg- 
ing boat  into  tank-like  inclosures,  where  they  may  be 
covered  for  a  short  time  with  fresh  water. 

On  the  Atlantic  coast,  the  shell  trade,  as  it  is  called, 
has  for  many  years  centered  in  New  York  City,  most 
of  the  oysters  sent  out  from  Baltimore  and  Norfolk  be- 
ing "  shucked."  The  marketing  of  oysters  in  the  shell 
has  assumed  great  proportions.  Formerly  inland  cities 
and  towns  were  satisfied  with  oysters  shipped  in  tin  cans. 
Later  the  container  more  often  employed  was  a  wooden 
pail.  But  finally,  in  city  restaurants  and  hotels  it  be- 
came customary  to  eat  oysters  from  the  half-shell,  and 
to-day  there  is  a  large  demand  for  them  in  that  form. 

For  the  most  part,  however,  oysters  are  still  marketed 
removed  from  the  shell.  It  is  not  often  possible  to  ob- 
tain anything  but  shucked  oysters  in  smaller  towns  and 
villages.  It  should  not  be  imagined  that  such  oysters  are 


142  Our  Food  Mollusks 

necessarily  inferior  to  the  "  shell  stock,"  even  when  they 
are  to  be  eaten  raw.  It  is  probable  that  the  tissues  of 
an  oyster  live  longer  within  the  shell,  though  shell  stock, 
also,  usually  is  subjected  to  the  fresh  water  treatment 
before  being  marketed,  and  it  would  be  a  difficult  matter 
to  distinguish  a  difference  in  the  flavor  of  oysters  on  the 
half -shell  and  those  that  have  been  shucked. 

Popular  requirements  in  articles  of  food  are  usually 
arbitrary  and  without  reason.  Appearance  often  seems 
to  be  more  important  than  quality  or  taste.  There  is  a 
demand  for  pure  rich  butter,  but  few  would  care  to 
eat  it,  for  pure,  rich  butter  is  not  bright  yellow.  Oranges 
and  plums  are  desired  only  when  they  are  bright  colored 
and  large,  which  too  often  means  that  they  are  sour  and 
tasteless.  Rice  must  be  polished  by  removing  its  most 
nutritious  outer  parts.  Oysters  must  be  bloated  and  must 
have  their  natural  salt  removed  in  order  readily  to  be 
salable.  The  same  is  true  of  a  long  list  of  food-stuffs. 

If  one  were  to  write  a  dissertation  on  the  sense  of 
taste,  he  would  have  ample  room  for  reflection  on  the 
causes  and  significance  of  diseased  tastes,  such  as  those 
that  are  trained  to  an  enjoyment  of  some  fancy  foreign 
cheeses,  of  partridges  and  grouse  in  a  state  that  might 
be  naturally  pleasing  to  a  buzzard,  or  of  oysters  so  cop- 
pery that  one  possessing  a  taste  in  its  naturally  innocent 
state  would  fear  poisoning  by  them.  One  curious  char- 
acteristic of  persons  who  possess  such  tastes  is  that  they 
sometimes  believe  themselves  to  be  able  to  appreciate  the 
most  subtle  and  delicate  flavors.  Possibly  that  may  be 
true,  but  carefully  conducted  experiments  on  such  sub- 
jects might  prove  interesting.  Even  consumers  of  oys- 
ters on  the  half-shell,  possessing  normal  and  unperverted 
tastes,  would  probably,  with  few  exceptions,  declare 


Implements  and  Their  Uses  143 

them  to  be  of  much  better  flavor  than  shucked  oysters. 
It  is  always  interesting  to  hear  comments  on  the  fine 
flavor  of  the  oysters,  when  canned  "  New  York  Counts  " 
or  oysters  of  a  similar  brand  are  served  on  shells  saved 
for  the  purpose.  It  is  just  as  interesting  to  blindfold  an 
expert  in  matters  of  taste,  who  then  possesses  the  ad- 
vantage of  knowing  that  he  is  being  tested,  and  to  serve 
him  with  oysters  fresh  from  the  shell,  and  shucked  oys- 
ters, in  either  case  the  best  that  the  market  affords,  but 
both  of  the  same  size,  in  order  that  his  discriminating 
taste  may  try  to  distinguish  one  from  the  other. 

It  cannot  be  successfully  maintained  that  all  oysters 
are  alike  in  flavor  when  all  come  fresh  and  unspoiled  from 
the  water,  or  even  when  all  are  more  or  less  spoiled  by 
the  fresh- water  treatment.  There  certainly  are  very 
positive  differences  in  the  flavor  of  oysters  from  different 
localities.  But  probably  an  unprejudiced  observer  whose 
sense  of  taste  is  normally  acute  would  be  slow  to  admit 
after  a  trial,  that  a  peculiar  and  particularly  delectable 
flavor  characterizes  the  oysters  of  every  bay,  cove  and 
river-mouth,  as  is  locally  claimed  for  each  of  them  all 
along  the  shore. 

Observations  of  this  sort  may  be  of  little  value  to  one 
who  is  fond  of  oysters  and  believes  that  those  that  he  is 
able  to  purchase  are  a  little  superior  in  flavor  to  any 
others;  indeed  it  would  be  a  loss  to  him  to  be  convinced 
that  he  had  been  mistaken.  But  on  the  other  hand,  there 
are  persons  who  believe  that  they  are  being  given  a  little 
the  worst  of  everything,  and  if  such  may  possibly  be 
cheered  by  following  the  line  of  experiment  suggested, 
it  will  not  have  been  proposed  in  vain. 

Returning  to  the  marketing  of  oysters ;  it  may  be 
said  that  the  greater  number  are  opened  where  they  are 


144  Our  Food  Mollusks 

landed,  and  hurried  to  all  parts  of  the  country  in  a  fresh 
condition.  In  former  years  there  was  little  organization 
in  the  preparation  and  distribution  of  raw  oysters,  and 
because  they  soon  became  spoiled,  they  were  not  shipped 
far  from  the  shore. 

Any  one  who  has  attempted  to  open  a  living  oyster, 
appreciates  the  task  of  the  professional  shucker.  The 
thin  edge  of  the  shell  often  cuts  like  a  knife.  Even 
leather  gloves  afford  slight  protection,  being  cut  to  shreds 
in  a  short  time.  The  most  successful  covering  for  the 
hand  that  holds  the  oyster  in  shucking,  is  a  thick  woolen 
mitten.  In  spite  of  every  protection,  the  shucker's  hands 
are  always  covered  with  cuts. 

When  a  living  oyster  is  handled,  its  adductor  muscle 
draws  the  valves  of  the  shell  together  with  such  force 
that  prying  them  apart  is  impossible.  More  than  that, 
the  valves  fit  together  so  nicely  that  there  is  no  space 
into  which  a  knife  blade  may  be  inserted.  The  only 
thing  to  be  done  is  to  break  off  the  edges  of  the  shell 
enough  to  allow  a  blade  to  enter,  and  it  is  so  ex- 
tremely tough  that  a  blow  from  a  hammer  is  required 
to  accomplish  it.  The  oyster  is  then  held  with  the  flat 
valve  uppermost.  A  quick  side  cut  severs  the  muscle 
from  the  upper  valve,  which  is  thrown  off.  Another 
cut  frees  the  "  meat "  from  the  deep  lower  valve,  from 
which  it  is  thrown  into  a  receptacle  of  some  kind.  The 
knife  used  possesses  a  blade  that  is  rounded  at  the  tip, 
and  cuts  on  both  edges,  but  is  not  kept  sharp.  The  handle 
is  of  wood  or  iron.  The  swiftness  and  dexterity  devel- 
oped by  an  expert  shucker  are  little  less  than  marvelous, 
but  the  work  is  always  hard  and  disagreeable. 

The  "  meats "  are  washed,  measured,  and  quickly 
packed  for  shipping.  At  Baltimore  and  some  other 


Implements  and  Their  Uses  145 

centers,  they  are  often  placed  in  tin  cans  and  hermeti- 
cally sealed.  These  are  packed  in  a  wooden  box  in  two 
rows,  leaving  a  space  between  for  ice.  Though  the  tin 
can  has  gradually  fallen  into  disuse  during  the  last  few 
years,  it  is  in  some  ways  the  best  container  yet  devised 
for  fresh,  shucked  oysters.  But  the  more  usual  method 
in  the  North,  as  well  as  at  Baltimore  and  Norfolk,  now  is 
to  use  barrels,  half-barrels,  or  pails  of  wood.  Pieces  of 
ice  are  put  in  with  the  oysters,  a  practice  that  fortunately 
is  being  abandoned — and  before  the  pure  food  laws  went 
into  effect,  it  is  possible  a  pinch  of  boric  or  salicylic  acid, 
also — and  a  cover  fitted  tightly  and  securely  over  them. 
Other  containers,  such  as  pint  and  quart  bottles  with 
pasteboard  stoppers,  and  double  receptacles  with  a  space 
between  for  ice,  are  beginning  to  be  used. 

Even  without  additional  refrigeration,  these  raw  oys- 
ters will  remain  fresh  for  ten  days  or  two  weeks  in  the 
winter.  They  are  transported  by  special  oyster  trains  or 
by  express,  and  all  the  central  states,  even  west  of  the 
Mississippi,  receive  them  in  good  condition.  Baltimore 
controls  a  large  part  of  the  inland  territory,  New  Haven 
and  other  Long  Island  Sound  cities  naturally  supply  the 
denser  population  of  New  England.  Many  raw  oysters 
from  Chesapeake  Bay  are  also  sent  North.  Several  fancy 
brands  of  northern  oysters  in  the  shell,  on  the  other 
hand,  find  a  large  market  in  Baltimore,  Washington,  and 
other  southern  cities. 

The  packing  industry  has  long«been  established  at  Mo- 
bile, and  is  growing  steadily  and  rapidly  at  New  Orleans. 
There  is  a  great  territory  in  the  South  to  be  supplied  from 
these  centers,  but  they  are  also  shipping  oysters  as  far 
north  as  Chicago,  and  as  far  west  as  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. Without  doubt  New  Orleans  will  in  a  few  years 


146  Our  Food  Mollusks 

become  one  of  the  great  oyster  shipping  centers  of  the 
country,  for  the  oyster  territory  about  the  delta  of  the 
Mississippi  is  extensive  and  possesses  great  natural  ad- 
vantages, and  oyster  culture  has  begun  there  in  earnest, 
and  under  most  intelligent  control. 

Before  means  of  rapid  transit  existed,  oysters  were 
steamed  at  a  temperature  far  above  the  boiling  point,  in 
order  to  kill  the  micro-organisms  of  putrefaction,  and 
then  canned.  Many  packing  houses,  especially  in  the 
South,  still  prepare  oysters  in  this  way.  The  virtue — if 
the  word  may  be  allowed  in  this  case — of  this  method 
is  simply  that  oysters  so  canned  may  stand  on  the  shelves 
of  the  country  grocery  store  for  several  years  without 
becoming  worse  than  when  they  were  received.  They  do 
not,  however,  commend  themselves  to  any  one  who  has 
eaten  raw  or  freshly  cooked  oysters. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  market  oysters  pickled  in 
spiced  vinegar,  but  with  little  success.  Oysters  carefully 
fried  in  crumbs  have  also  been  marketed  in  sealed  tins, 
but  for  some  reason,  little  demand  was  created  for  them. 


CHAPTER  X 

NATURAL   ENEMIES   OF  THE   AMERICAN 

OYSTER 


HAT  may  be  called  the  balance  of  nature — 
the  interdependence  of  organisms  on  each 
other — as  it  appears  in  a  multitude  of  forms, 
is  one  of  the  most  striking  and  interesting  of 
the  phenomena  that  the  naturalist  observes.  These  vital 
relations  among  living  things  are  frequently  complex,  in- 
volving many  different  species  of  both  animals  and  plants. 
They  are  not  fixed,  but  even  without  man's  influence, 
are  subject  to  many  changes. 

One  of  the  conclusions  derived  from  the  study  of  the 
interrelations  of  organisms  is  that  every  animal  and 
every  plant  has  enemies  that  may  injure  or  destroy  it. 
These  enemies  are  not  of  a  single  species,  but  many. 
Wild  rabbits,  for  example,  in  order  to  exist  must  escape 
from  foxes,  wild  members  of  the  cat  family,  minks, 
weasles,  hawks,  snakes,  and  many  other  vertebrates;  and 
in  addition  to  these  they  must  contend  against  a  host  of 
insect  and  worm  parasites.  The  list  does  not  end  here, 
but  includes  many  deadly  bacterial  and  perhaps  proto- 
zoan parasites.  While  this  may  seem  to  be  an  extreme 
case,  one  may  be  perfectly  certain  that  even  the  eagle  and 
the  lion,  that  we  are  accustomed  to  think  of  as  fearing  no 
foe,  are  subject  to  attack  by  many  deadly  enemies. 
Animals  and  plants  in  nature  have,  through  the  action 

147 


148  Our  Food  Mollusks 

of  natural  selection,  developed  many  means  of  protec- 
tion, some  of  them  very  extraordinary,  so  that  a  balance 
is  established  that  allows  a  species  to  survive.  But  when 
man  makes  his  appearance,  and  domesticates  wild  plants 
or  animals,  these  equilibriums  are  disturbed,  and  com- 
plicated results  follow. 

While  these  conditions  might  be  illustrated  by  scores 
of  interesting  examples,  that  might  be  selected  from  the 
observations  of  naturalists,  it  is  sufficient  to  call  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  the  agriculturist  is  constantly  waging 
a  war  on  numerous  enemies  that  attack  every  animal  or 
plant  that  he  attempts  to  rear,  and  that  would  destroy 
them  without  his  intervention.  Not  only  is  this  true, 
but  often  when  one  foe  is  conquered,  an  entirely  new 
one  appears.  It  is  an  ever  changing  and  never  ending 
warfare. 

Naturally,  the  oyster  culturist  does  not  escape  the  ne- 
cessity of  fighting  oyster  enemies,  and  there  are  many  of 
them.  Fortunately,  natural  surroundings  are  not  greatly 
changed  by  the  methods  of  the  culturist,  but  even  the 
slight  changes  that  are  necessary,  have  facilitated  the 
attacks  of  some  enemies,  and  led  to  their  rapid  increase. 
Natural  oysters  in  dense  clusters  are  more  or  less  pro- 
tected from  the  attacks  of  starfish,  drumfish,  boring 
mollusks,  and  other  foes,  but  when  spread  out  singly  on 
smooth  bottoms,  are  easily  destroyed.  Fortunately  the 
distribution  of  no  oyster  enemy  is  as  extensive  as  that 
of  the  oyster  itself.  Some  of  these  foes  exist  only  in 
salt  water,  while  others  seem  to  be  limited  in  their  dis- 
tribution by  temperature. 

In  the  most  northern  of  the  Atlantic  grounds,  the 
common  starfish  is  by  far  the  most  destructive  of  the 
oyster's  foes.  Fortunately  it  is  a  truly  marine  animal, 


Enemies  of  the  American  Oyster         149 

and  is  killed  quickly  when  immersed  in  fresh  water.  It 
is  not  abundant  in  sea-water  that  is  only  slightly  fresh- 
ened. On  the  other  hand,  the  oyster  is  naturally  a 
brackish  water  form.  The  natural  ranges  of  the  two 
forms,  then,  are  not  the  same,  but  overlap.  It  thus  hap- 
pens that  almost  the  whole  of  Chesapeake  Bay  and  the 
shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  while  salt  enough  for 
oysters,  are  too  fresh  for  starfish,  and  in  these  regions 
this  curse  of  the  northern  industry  is  practically  un- 
known. 

It  was  not  until  about  1882  that  it  was  recognized  as 
a  serious  menace  to  the  northern  industry.  The  reason 
for  this  was  not  the  sudden  appearance  of  the  form  at 
that  time,  but  simply  that  the  industry  had  previously 
been  confined  to  comparatively  fresh  waters  near  the 
mouths  of  rivers,  or  streams,  where  the  creature  found 
difficulty  in  perpetuating  itself.  It  is  usually  on  the 
outer  beds  only  that  oystermen  have  great  trouble  with 
the  pest. 

The  starfish  or  "  five-finger  "  certainly  does  not  reveal 
its  real  character  by  its  appearance,  for  among  the  shore 
animals,  few  are  seemingly  more  harmless.  Its  body 
is  made  up  of  a  central  circular  disk,  a  little  more  than  an 
inch  in  diameter  in  the  species  inhabiting  Long  Island 
Sound  and  neighboring  waters.  From  this  there  radiate 
symmetrically  five  arms  or  rays,  each  five  or  six  inches 
long  in  a  large  specimen.  The  wall  of  the  entire  body 
is  composed  chiefly  of  short  rod-like  plates  of  lime  joined 
together  at  their  ends  by  muscles,  and  in  such  a  way  as 
to  form  a  network.  Borne  on  these  plates  of  the  skele- 
ton, and  projecting  outward  over  the  entire  surface,  are 
a  great  many  short,  blunt,  spines. 

The  mouth  is  situated  on  the  under  surface  in  the 


150 


Our  Food  Mollusks 


center  of  the  disk.  Radiating  from  this  on  the  under 
side  of  each  arm,  and  extending  to  its  tip,  are  grooves 
from  which  project  a  great  number  of  fleshy  tubes,  each 
provided  with  a  disk-like  sucker  at  its  end.  These  are 
the  tube  feet,  and  are  used  in  locomotion. 

One  would  hardly  imagine,  after  examining  a  dried 
specimen,  with  its  hard,  unyielding  body,  that  it  might 


FIG.  38.— Common  Starfish  of  the  North  Atlantic  Coast. 

be  capable  of  much  bending  in  any  part.  But  the  living 
animal  is  able  to  bend  these  arms  upward,  downward  and 
sideways,  to  an  extreme  degree,  by  the  contraction  of 
muscles  connecting  the  plates  of  the  skeleton. 

The  animal  creeps  on  the  bottom  with  great  delibera- 
tion.    Six  inches  in  a  minute  is  fair  speed  for  a  large 


Enemies  of  the  American  Oyster 

individual.  Its  locomotion  is  accomplished  by  thrusting 
out  a  number  of  the  sucker  feet  in  a  definite  direction 
and  attaching  them  by  their  ends.  The  feet  may  be  ex- 
tended an  inch  or  more.  After  attachment  these  con- 
tract, other  feet  that  have  been  tenaciously  holding  to 
the  bottom  at  the  same  time  detaching,  and  the  body  is 
slowly  pulled  along.  Thus,  many  feet,  acting  independ- 
ently, reach  out  in  the  direction  of  locomotion,  attach, 
and  then  exert  a  pull  by  contracting,  while  all  the  time 
other  feet  that  have  already  contracted  loose  their  hold 
and  then  reach  out  again.  Slow  as  these  movements 
are,  they  result  in  migrations  of  considerable  extent, 
that  often  surprise  and  trouble  the  oyster  culturist. 

One  other  anatomical  feature  is  of  interest  in  this  con- 
nection. Nearly  the  entire  interior  of  the  central  disk 
of  the  body  is  occupied  by  the  stomach,  while  the  arms, 
or  rays,  are  nearly  filled  by  great  glands  that  secrete  a 
large  quantity  of  digestive  fluid.  The  starfish  feeds 
principally  on  barnacles  and  bivalve  mollusks.  The 
mouth,  merely  an  opening  unprovided  with  teeth,  and 
capable  of  expanding  to  a  diameter  of  little  more  than 
half  an  inch,  even  in  large  specimens,  is  not  intended 
to  receive  the  bodies  of  animals  preyed  on.  Sometimes 
however,  very  small  mollusks  are  taken  into  the  stomach, 
shell  and  all,  but  probably  not  often.  Without  teeth  or 
other  organs  for  breaking  the  shell,  and  with  a  small 
mouth — merely  an  opening  through  a  muscular  mem- 
brane— how  is  it  possible  for  a  starfish  to  devour  an 
oyster  as  large  as  itself? 

Various  opinions  have  been  expressed  on  the  matter. 
It  has  been  supposed  that  the  starfish  reaches  the  soft 
parts  of  the  oyster  by  inserting  some  part  of  its  hard 
body  between  the  valves  so  as  to  keep  them  wedged  open. 


152  Our  Food  Mollusks 

It  has  also  been  stated  that  they  break  off  the  edges  of  the 
oyster's  shell  so  as  to  make  an  opening  to  the  interior. 
A  mere  examination  of  the  body  of  the  starfish  would 
show  this  to  be  impossible.  They  have  been  thought  to 
kill  their  prey  by  some  poison,  and  even  to  dissolve  the 
shell  by  some  acid. 

The  whole  performance  of  disposing  of  the  oyster 
may  be  witnessed  in  an  aquarium,  and  appears  to  be  as 
follows.  Slowly  creeping  on  to  its  victim,  the  starfish 
wraps  its  rays  about  it,  at  the  same  time  taking  up  such 
a  position  that  its  mouth  is  nearly  opposite  the  shell 
edges.  The  oyster  responds  even  to  this  cautious  and 
gentle  caress  by  contracting  its  adductor  muscle  and  clos- 
ing its  shell.  The  contraction  of  the  muscle  may  be 
made  so  powerful  that  if  one  should  attempt  to  pry  the 
valves  apart,  the  tough  shell  might  break  without  caus- 
ing the  muscle  to  yield. 

The  starfish  cannot  match  such  a  sudden  demonstra- 
tion of  muscular  strength.  It  simply  camps  on  the  trail 
in  oriental  fashion.  If  it  cannot  win  now,  it  may  later, 
and  it  invariably  wins.  Scores  of  its  feet  are  attached  to 
each  valve  of  the  shell.  Apparently  they  contract  so  as 
to  exert  a  gentle  pull  in  opposite  directions,  and  against 
the  oyster's  powerful  muscle,  which  in  time  becomes 
fatigued.  Eventually  it  yields  altogether,  incapable  of 
further  effort,  and  the  valves  of  the  shell  gape  open.  It 
is  possible  that  the  sucker  feet  have  each  in  turn  en- 
joyed periods  of  rest  during  this  siege.  At  any  rate, 
their  gentle  insistence  conquers  in  the  end. 

The  shell  valve  will  not  open  far,  and  the  digestible 
part  of  the  mollusk's  body  is  still  some  distance  away — 
but  not  out  of  reach.  It  is  a  physical  impossibility  for 
the  captor  to  get  the  great  mass  of  food  into  its 


Enemies  of  the  American  Oyster         153 

stomach,  so  to  overcome  the  difficulty,  nature  has  made 
it  possible  for  the  stomach  to  go  to  the  food.  The 
greater  part  of  this  sack-like  organ  is  made  of  a  very  dis- 
tensible wall.  This  now  begins  to  roll  out  of  the  mouth 
and  between  the  valves  of  the  oyster's  shell  in  the  form 
of  a  great  thin  sheet.  It  is  spread  over  the  soft  tissues 
of  the  victim's  body,  the  great  digestive  glands  connected 
with  the  stomach  cavity,  pour  out  their  secretion  through 
the  tubular  passage  remaining  in  the  center  of  the  sheet, 
and  the  food  is  rendered  fluid  and  absorbed  without  be- 
ing disturbed  from  its  position  within  the  shell.  When 
the  meal  is  finished,  the  muscular  part  of  the  stomach  is 
slowly  contracted  and  rolled  back  through  the  mouth 
into  the  body. 

The  starfish  would  not  be  so  great  a  menace  to  the 
oyster  industry  if  its  appetite  were  not  so  nearly  insati- 
able. It  may  live  for  months  practically  without  food, 
but  having  the  opportunity,  it  will  creep  from  one 
bivalve  to  another — whether  oyster,  clam  or  mussel — 
without  observing  a  between-meal  period,  and  thus  be- 
comes extremely  destructive.  A  small  star  has  been  ob- 
served to  devour  more  than  fifty  clams  somewhat  smaller 
than  itself  in  six  days,  and  increased  in  size  at  a  very 
rapid  rate. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  notice  that  this  gluttonous 
habit,  certainly  one  of  the  most  remarkable  observed 
among  animals,  begins  in  infancy,  even  at  a  time  when 
the  arms  are  as  yet  mere  rudimentary  lobes  on  the  sides 
of  the  minute  central  disk.  Figure  57  represents  such  a 
precocious  infant  engaged  in  the  destruction  of  a  baby 
clam.  That  this  is  beginning  a  life  of  ravin  early,  may 
be  indicated  by  the  fact  that  the  bodies  of  the  two  ani- 
mals together  measured  less  than  two  millimeters  across. 


154  OUF  Food  Mollusks 

At  this  age  the  shell  of  the  clam  was  quite  transparent, 
and  the  protruded  stomach  of  its  infant  destroyer  was 
observed  spread  out  within  it.  Newly  attached  oysters, 
also,  as  well  as  those  of  larger  growth,  are  destroyed  in 
the  same  manner  by  starfish  of  various  sizes.  They  are 
never  too  small  to  escape. 

Professor  A.  D.  Mead  has  demonstrated  the  fact,  in- 
teresting both  from  a  biological  and  economic  stand- 
point, that  the  growth  of  small  starfish  is  proportionate 
to  the  amount  of  food  that  they  consume.  Beginning  an 
experiment  with  two  starfish  of  the  same  age,  and  with 
bodies  about  the  size  of  a  pinhead,  if  one  is  starved, 
it  may  still  be  living  at  the  end  of  a  month,  but  of  course 
will  not  have  grown.  The  other,  if  well  fed,  will,  in  the 
same  length  of  time,  have  become  large  enough  to  cover 
a  silver  dollar.  It  was  formerly  supposed  that  starfish 
became  sexually  mature  only  after  a  period  of  six  or 
seven  years.  It  is  now  known  that  they  reproduce  on 
attaining  a  certain  size,  and  size,  as  indicated  above,  de- 
pends directly  on  the  amount  of  food.  The  result  is 
that  a  female  starfish  may,  if  large  enough,  begin  to  ex- 
trude eggs  during  its  second  summer,  and  many  by  that 
time  attain  the  required  size. 

Oyster  culture  would  be  quite  impossible  over  a  large 
part  of  the  northern  field  if  starfish  were  left  to  them- 
selves, yet  to  keep  down  their  numbers  is  a  very  diffi- 
cult task.  When  not  excessively  numerous  in  shallow 
water,  the  culturist  sometimes  takes  up  the  larger  in- 
dividuals one  at  a  time  on  a  spear. 

The  real  damage  is  done  when  starfish  move  together 
in  great  numbers,  as  they  often  do.  Traveling  but  a 
short  distance  each  day,  a  great  army  of  them  may  creep 
over  a  bed,  utterly  destroying  it.  In  deep  water  their 


Enemies  of  the  American  Oyster         155 

presence  may  not  be  discovered  until  the  damage  is  done. 
It  is  thus  necessary  for  the  culturist  to  exercise  eternal 
vigilance.  The  number  of  these  enemies  that  must  be 
dealt  with  in  certain  localities  may  be  imagined  when  it  is 
stated  that  one  oyster  planter  in  six  years  removed  from 
his  deep  water  beds  ten  thousand  bushels  of  them. 

There  is  considerable  variation  in  their  number,  due  to 
changes  in  environment.     It  sometimes  happens  that  a 


FIG.  39. — Tangle  of  frayed  rope  or 
pieces  of  cotton  waste  used  in  col- 
lecting starfish  on  oyster  beds. 
Drawn  from  a  figure  published  by 
the  U.  S.  Fish  Commission. 

year  or  even  more  may  pass  without  the  appearance  of 
great  numbers.  At  another  time  they  become  very 
abundant. 

The  removal  of  these  pests  has  always  been  a  very 


156  Our  Food  Mollusks 

difficult  matter,  and  no  entirely  satisfactory  method  has 
been  devised  for  accomplishing  it.  Several  devices  have 
been  tried  and  abandoned.  Two  chief  means  of  dealing 
with  them  have  been  employed.  In  one  case  everything 
lying  on  the  bottom  is  removed  by  dredges.  Ordinarily 
this  is  too  expensive,  unless  oysters  thus  dredged  are  in 
need  of  culling.  The  second  method  is  one  recom- 
mended by  the  United  States  Fish  Commission,  and  is 
universally  employed;  indeed,  the  oyster  industry  could 
hardly  exist  in  New  England  without  it. 

Naturalists  had  for  many  years  used  a  large  mop  made 
of  frayed  rope  ends  for  entangling  and  raising  spiny 
animals  from  the  sea  bottom.  It  was  a  modification  of 
this  that  the  Fish  Commission  naturalists  recommended 
to  the  Connecticut  oystermen.  The  starfish  tangle,  as 
shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration  (Figure  39), 
consists  of  an  iron  or  wooden  bar  from  which  depend 
several  chains  or  wires.  On  the  latter,  mops  of  frayed 
rope  or  cotton  waste  are  hung.  The  tangle  is  dragged 
over  the  bottom,  the  spines  of  the  starfish  catch  on  the 
mops,  and  the  load  is  hoisted  to  the  deck  of  the  vessel 
and  plunged  into  a  tank  of  hot  water. 

The  tangle  does  not  sweep  the  bottom  clean  of  star- 
fish, but  by  its  use  their  number  is  kept  within  bounds. 
There  is  no  danger  that  the  pest  may  ever  get  beyond 
control.  There  is  great  occasion  for  the  southern  planter 
to  be  thankful  that  he  knows  nothing  of  such  an  oyster 
foe.  . 

There  are  several  species  of  snails  that  are  destructive 
to  bivalves.  Among  these  the  large  winkles  or  conchs 
of  northern  shores  do  very  little  damage;  but  some  of 
the  smaller  forms,  particularly  the  oyster  drill,  cause 
large  losses  here  and  there  along  the  Atlantic  coast. 


Enemies  of  the  American  Oyster         157 

The  shell  of  the  oyster  drill,  represented  in  Figure  40, 
has  a  length  of  an  inch  or  somewhat  more.  When  the 
fleshy  parts  of  the  body  are  extended  one  may  observe 
the  flat  muscular  "  foot/'  and  projecting  forward  above 
it,  a  proboscis-like  extension  of  the  head,  on  the  end  of 
which  is  the  mouth.  Just  within  the  mouth 
opening,  in  a  position  corresponding  to  that 
of  the  tongue  of  higher  animals,  is  developed 
a  band  of  minute,  hard,  sharp  teeth,  which 
together  constitute  what  is  known  as  the 
lingual  ribbon. 

When  at  work  on  the  shell  of  an  oyster 
or  clam,  the  foot  may  be  seen  to  adhere 
firmly  to  it,  while  the  mouth  is  everted  suf- 
ficiently  to  expose  the  ribbon.  This  is 
pressed  against  the  shell,  and  a  slow,  rotary  cinirea). 
movement  is  begun  that  finally  results  in  the  Drawn  from 
drilling  of  a  clean,  smooth  hole  directly 
through  it.  Some  of  the  results  of  this  work  are  shown 
in  Figure  64.  It  is  now  only  necessary  for  the  drill  to 
remove  the  soft  parts  of  the  victim's  body  by  means  of 
the  proboscis  or  manubrium,  which  is  thrust  through  the 
aperture. 

The  drill,  or  Urosalpinx,  is  most  destructive  to  young 
oysters.  It  seems  to  be  unable  to  bore  through  the  shell 
of  large  individuals.  While  not  nearly  so  destructive  as 
the  starfish,  it  does  much  damage,  because  it  is  continu- 
ally at  work,  and  is  so  small  that  it  falls  through  the 
mesh  of  ordinary  oyster  dredges.  In  order  to  prevent 
this,  dredges  are  sometimes  covered  with  fine-meshed 
nets. 

Like  starfish,  oyster  drills  were  formerly  not  numer- 
ous on  the  New  England  oyster  beds,  but  in  recent  years 


158 


Our  Food  Mollusks 


have  increased  greatly.  In  New  York  Bay  and  in  the 
Chesapeake,  they  are  abundant.  Many  also  are  found 
in  Pamlico  Sound.  In  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  they  are  ab- 
sent, but  it  is  claimed  by  oystermen  in  Louisiana  that  a 
larger  drill,  Purpura  floridana,  is  sometimes  very  de- 
structive. There  seems  to  be  much  doubt  concerning  the 
accuracy  of  this  statement. 

Another  enemy  of  the  oyster  having  a  wide  range,  and 
often  being  destructive,  is  a  member  of  a  group  of  fishes 


FIG.   41. — The    Drumtish    (Pogonias    chromis). 
figure  in  Dr.  Jordan's  "  Fishes." 


Outline    of    a 


popularly  known  as  croakers.  This  species,  Pogonias 
chromis  (Figure  41),  is  called  the  drumfish,  from  a 
deep,  croaking  noise  that  it  makes  while  in  the  water,  a 
noise  probably  connected  with  the  large  air  bladder. 

The  drum  is  a  food  fish,  though  its  flesh  is  coarse, 
and  sometimes  it  attains  a  weight  of  nearly  one  hundred 
and  fifty  pounds.  It  is  found  all  along  the  Atlantic 
coast,  and  is  abundant  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  gives 
comparatively  little  trouble  in  New  England  waters,  but 
farther  south,  especially  in  the  Gulf,  it  is  often  very  an- 


Enemies  of  the  American  Oyster         159 

noying.  It  is  a  bottom  feeder,  and  by  means  of  its 
powerful  jaws  is  able  to  crush  oysters  of  considerable 
size.  The  interesting  statement  is  made  by  oystermen 
that  the  drum  is  unable  seriously  to  injure  clustered 
oysters  on  natural  reefs  because,  in  attacking  a  cluster, 
its  mouth  is  soon  lacerated  by  the  sharp  edges  of  the 
shells.  It  is  only  when  oysters  are  culled  and  scattered 
singly  on  prepared  bottoms  that  they  become  easy  vic- 
tims of  this  enemy. 

Drumfishes  are  perhaps  not  more  numerous  in  Louisi- 
ana waters  than  elsewhere  in  the  Gulf,  but  because 
oyster  culture  has  only  been  seriously  attempted  here, 
their  depredations  have  been  specially  felt  in  this  state. 
Their  attacks  are  not  constant,  and  it  has  been  observed 
that  there  is  greatest  danger  to  the  beds  immediately 
after  planting,  and  that  if  no  attack  is  made  during  the 
first  few  days,  there  is  little  subsequent  danger  of  it.  It 
has  been  suggested  in  explanation  of  this  fact  that  after 
oysters  have  sunk  slightly  into  the  mud  and  have  been 
sprinkled  over  with  sediment,  they  become  inconspicuous 
enough  to  escape  observation  by  the  fish. 

There  seems  to  be  but  one  means  of  protection  against 
these  fishes,  and  that  is  to  build  a  stockade  or  fence  about 
the  beds  that  they  cannot  pass  through.  This  is  done  in 
some  parts  of  the  Louisiana  field. 

Other  fishes  sometimes  make  trouble  for  the  oyster 
farmer.  In  warmer  waters,  from  the  Chesapeake  south- 
ward, a  valuable  food  fish,  the  sheepshead,  often  feeds 
on  young  oysters,  crushing  them  by  means  of  its  large, 
blunt,  incisor-like  teeth. 

Rays  and  skates  abound  all  along  the  coast.  They  are 
bottom  feeders  and  their  bodies  are  greatly  flattened  and 
spread  out  laterally.  Several  of  these  destroy  oysters, 


i6o 


Our  Food  Mollusks 


crushing-  them  with  strong  jaws  that  are  covered  with 
short,  hard  teeth.  The  list  of  oyster  enemies  in  this 
group  of  fishes  includes  the  common  skate ;  the  sting  ray, 
or  "  stingaree,"  as  it  is  usually  called  on  the  shore,  a 
form  that  bears  a  long,  dagger-like  spine  on  the  base  of 
the  tail;  and  it  is  supposed,  also,  the  "  devil  ray,"  an 

enormous  creature  having 
a  width  of  eighteen  or 
twenty  feet,  and  weigh- 
ing, in  some  cases,  as 
much  as  twelve  hundred 
pounds.  The  latter,  how- 
ever, has  been  reported  as 
an  oyster  enemy  only 
from  Port  Eades,  Louisi- 
ana, where  it  is  known  as 
the  "  stone  cracker  " — 
though  there  is  probably 
not  a  stone  large  enough 
to  crack  within  a  hundred 
miles  of  Port  Eades. 

Oystermen  believe  that 
crabs  destroy  young  oys- 
ters, and  this  is  probably 
true  in  some  cases.  The 
pinch  of  the  claws  of 
many  crabs  is  powerful 
enough  to  break  the  shell 
of  small  oysters.  It  is  observed  that  they  gather  in 
crowds  where  oysters  are  being  planted,  apparently  at- 
tracted by  broken  individuals.  It  is  possible  that  they 
also  attack  the  uninjured  young,  though  accurate  ob- 
servations on  this  point  seem  to  be  wanting. 


FIG.  42. — The  sting-ray  (Dasyatis 
sabina).  Outline  of  a  figure  in 
Dr.  Jordan's  "  Fishes." 


Enemies  of  the  American  Oyster         161 

Mr.  Ingersoll  calls  our  attention  to  the  fact  that  "  Al- 
drovandus  and  others  of  the  naturalists  of  the  Middle 
Ages  entertained  a  singular  notion  relative  to  the  crab 
and  the  oyster.  They  state  that  the  crab,  in  order  to 
obtain  the  animal  of  the  oyster,  without  danger  to  their 
own  claws,  watch  their  opportunity  when  the  shell  is 
open,  to  advance  without  noise,  and  cast  a  pebble  between 
their  shells,  to  prevent  their  closing,  and  then  extract  the 
animal  in  safety.  '  What  craft,'  exclaims  the  credulous 
author,  '  in  animals  that  are  destitute  of  reason  and 
voice/  " 

Every  one  who  eats  oysters  has  observed  the  small 
oyster  crab  that  lives  in  the  mantle  chamber.  Only  the 
female  is  found  within  the  oyster's  shell,  and  the  male 
has  rarely  been  seen.  This  small  creature  is  not  an 
enemy,  but  simply  a  guest.  It  has  been  suggested  that 
she  consumes  organic  particles  brought  in  by  the  water 
currents;  but  it  may  be  that  the  masses  of  mucous  secre- 
tion that  collect  in  the  mantle  chamber  constitute  "  the 
chief  of  her  diet."  This,  however,  is  proposed  without 
actual  observation  to  support  it. 

Members  of  the  mussel  family — near  allies  of  the 
oyster — while  they  do  not  prey  on  their  cousins,  often 
smother  or  starve  them.  They  frequently  become  fear- 
ful pests  to  the  oyster  culturist,  especially  in  southern 
waters.  Their  young,  finding  a  suitable  lodging-place 
on  oyster  shells,  congregate  on  them  in  numbers,  at- 
taching by  the  many  tough  fibers  spun  by  the  byssus 
gland.  They  may  become  so  numerous  as  completely  to 
cover  the  oysters  and  prevent  the  opening  of  their  shells, 
which,  of  course,  means  death.  Even  if  this  does  not 
occur,  they  strain  out  of  the  water  the  same  organisms 
that  the  oysters  must  have  for  food,  and  the  latter  fail 


162  Our  Food  Mollusks 

to  grow.  Figure  43  well  illustrates  this  condition  of 
affairs.  At  the  right,  appear  the  gaping  shell  edges  of 
an  unfortunate  that  has  succumbed  to  the  extreme  neigh- 
borliness  of  mussels  and  barnacles.  It  may  easily  be 
imagined  after  one  has  by  experience  measured  the  force 
necessary  to  tear  the  muscles  away  from  their  attach- 
ment, what  a  great  task  of  culling  is  before  the  oyster 
culturist  whose  beds  have  become  infested  with  these 
bivalves. 

The  boring  sponge  is  another  animal  that  finds  lodg- 
ment on  the  oyster  shell,  and  injures  its  host  indirectly. 
Cliona  sulphurea  is  a  sponge  mass  sometimes  six  inches 
in  diameter  at  its  base,  attaching  by  strands  of  root-like 
tissue  that  excavate  channels  within  the  substance  of 
the  shell.  While  this  is  not  done  with  the  purpose  of 
using  any  part  of  the  oyster's  body  for  food,  the  honey- 
combed shell  may  accidentally  be  perforated,  making  it 
necessary  for  the  oyster  to  consume  all  of  its  energies  in 
secreting  new  shell  substance,  or  the  shell  may  break,  ex- 
posing the  inner  body,  which  leads  to  death.  Cliona  oc- 
curs frequently  enough  in  northern  waters,  in  the  Chesa- 
peake, in  the  Carolinas,  and  in  the  Gulf,  to  be  recognized 
as  a  foe  to  the  oysters. 

In  a  similar  manner  the  shell  of  the  oyster  is  per- 
forated and  weakened  by  the  boring  clam  (Martesia 
cuneiformis)  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  This  creature  in 
infancy  bores  into  the  shell  and  excavates  a  chamber 
which  is  used  as  a  dwelling  place.  A  few  of  these  ani- 
mals infesting  a  shell  make  it  as  fragile  as  when  bored  by 
the  sponge  Cliona. 

In  brackish  and  salt  water  alike,  there  are  almost 
everywhere  certain  sea-weeds  that  attach  to  objects  in 
the  water,  such  as  stones  or  shells,  and  produce  great 


FIG.  43.     Oyster    cluster     covered    with    mussels. 


Fu;.  44.  The  nature  of  the  crowding  in  oyster  clusters.  Fig- 
ures from  Dr.  H.  F.  Aloore,  Document,  U.  S.  .Bureau  of 
Fisheries. 


(   UNIVERSITY   ) 

Of 


Enemies  of  the  American  Oyster        163 

masses  of  vegetation.  Sometimes  oyster  shells  become 
covered  by  such  weeds  as  the  sea  lettuce  (Ulva),  spread- 
ing out  great  sheets  of  tissue  that  are  held  flat  on  the 
bottom  in  tide  currents. 

These  plants  are  not  parasitic,  but  may  interfere  with 
oyster  growth  by  preventing  the  access  of  food-bearing 
currents.  When  oysters  so  covered  are  dredged,  it  is 
necessary  to  strip  the  weed  off,  and  in  the  Gulf,  certain 
weeds  with  cylindrical  fibers  are  brittle  enough  to  break 
into  small  pieces,  and  these,  getting  into  the  "  meats  " 
during  the  shucking  process,  though  harmless,  make 
them  quite  unsalable.  From  this  cause  beds  are  some- 
times temporarily  abandoned. 

In  the  brackish  waters  in  which  oysters  thrive  best,  the 
shells  rarely  become  covered  with  a  growth  of  hydroids. 
These  animals  with  their  root-like  bases,  their  branching 
bodies,  and  beautifully  colored  spreading  zooids,  greatly 
resemble  gardens  of  miniature  flowering  plants;  but 
they  have  no  beauties  for  the  oysterman.  Feeding  on 
minute  swimming  animals,  and  merely  resting  on  the 
shells,  they  do  not  harm  the  oysters,  but  it  is  difficult  to 
clean  the  shells  of  them,  and  both  on  "  shell  stock  "  and 
oysters  for  shucking  they  are  a  nuisance. 

Like  other  animals,  oysters  seem  to  be  subject  to  cer- 
tain diseases,  one  of  which,  at  any  rate,  is  known.  In 
the  Chesapeake,  and  probably  all  waters  to  the  south, 
there  sometimes  appears  in  the  pulpy  visceral  mass,  a 
swarm  of  small  worm  parasites.  These  seem  not  to  be 
known  to  oystermen,  who  may,  however,  have  noticed 
the  very  poor  condition  of  certain  individuals  that  are 
really  diseased.  It  was  left  to  a  biologist  to  show  that 
disease  existed. 

The  presence  of  the  parasite  Bucephalus  prevents  the 


164  Our  Food  Mollusks 

formation  of  the  oyster's  sexual  products,  so  that  in  the 
breeding  season,  its  body  appears  thin  and  watery,  and 
observations  have  shown  that  under  adverse  conditions, 
such  as  long-continued  freshness  of  water,  that  is  a  severe 
test  of  vitality,  the  mortality  on  infected  beds  is  much 
greater  than  elsewhere.  This  organism  seems  not  to  exist 
in  northern  waters,  where  ineffectual  search  has  been 
made  for  it. 

It  is  possible  that  future  study  may  reveal  other  organ- 
isms causing  disease  in  oysters,  but  extensive  epidemics 
apparently  do  not  occur  among  them.  Any  such  parasitic 
forms,  causing  diseases  in  the  oyster,  would  probably  al- 
ways be  quite  harmless  if  taken  into  the  human  digestive 
tract.  The  germs  of  typhoid,  that  may  be  carried  by  the 
oyster,  of  course  do  not  harm  it.  Distantly  related  or- 
ganisms do  not  have  the  same  diseases. 

The  list  here  given  is  a  fairly  complete  catalog  of  the 
oyster's  enemies,  and  when  it  is  considered  that  very  few 
of  them  exist  in  the  same  region,  it  would  seem  that  the 
oyster  crop  was  nowhere  menaced  by  destructive  agencies 
more  than  is  the  farmer's  wheat  or  corn.  On  the  whole, 
it  may  be  doubted  if  the  menace  is  anywhere  so  great. 

Yet  any  one  who  has  a  wide  acquaintance  with  the 
human  inhabitants  of  the  shore,  has  known  some  who 
illustrate  the  fact  that  those  who  live  on  the  bounty  of 
nature  without  other  effort  than  that  needed  to  gather 
what  she  has  prepared,  are  apt  to  be  improvident  and  un- 
successful. A  great  many  oystermen  complain  that 
their  business  is  a  poor  one — and  it  is.  But  those  who 
have  gone  to  the  sea  with  the  energy  requisite  to  suc- 
cess anywhere,  and  with  the  intelligence  necessary  to  as- 
sist and  direct  nature,  have  found  her,  like  wisdom  itself, 
"  easy  to  be  intreated,  full  of  mercy  and  good  fruits." 


Enemies  of  the  American  Oyster         165 

In  spite  of  enemies  and  bad  seasons,  many  an  energetic 
oysterman,  beginning  with  small  capital,  has  built  up  a 
comfortable  fortune.  There  is  a  constantly  growing  de- 
mand for  this  form  of  food,  and  there  are  hundreds  of 
miles  of  fertile  bottoms,  now  barren,  where,  with  com- 
paratively little  labor,  it  may  be  produced,  and  other 
fortunes  will  be  made  on  them. 


CHAPTER  XI 
BIVALVES  IN  RELATION  TO  DISEASE 


ECENTLY  great  popular  interest  has  been 
awakened  in  regard  to  shell-fish,  and  par- 
ticularly oysters,  as  carriers  of  the  micro- 
organisms that  cause  certain  human  diseases. 
The  daily  press,  and  especially  popular  magazines,  have 
published  numerous  articles  that  might  well  have  proved 
to  be  disquieting,  on  the  dangerous  conditions  existing 
on  oyster  beds  or  in  waters  in  which  oysters  are  stored 
or  freshened.  On  the  other  hand,  some  claiming  to  be 
competent  authorities,  have  publicly  stated  with  much 
positiveness  that  oysters  cannot  transmit  diseases,  and  it 
may  well  puzzle  the  average  reader  to  know  where  the 
truth  lies.  Because  oysters  are  so  highly  prized,  and  are 
so  generally  consumed  uncooked,  the  matter  of  the  pos- 
sible danger  that  may  lie  in  them  has  excited  a  growing 
desire  to  know  the  facts. 

Newspaper  and  magazine  science  should  be  received 
with  caution  and  discrimination,  but  it  now  happens  very 
much  more  frequently  than  formerly  that  popular 
scientific  articles  are  prepared  with  due  regard  to  matters 
of  fact,  and  are  sometimes  presented  by  eminent  author- 
ities. Though  much  that  has  been  written  on  the  possi- 
bility of  the  contamination  of  oysters  and  clams  may 
have  had  the  appearance  of  exaggeration,  the  truth  has 
usually  been  stated.  One  human  disease  at  least,  greatly 

166 


Bivalves  in  Relation  to  Disease          167 

feared  on  account  of  its  insidious  and  dangerous  nature, 
is  without  doubt  sometimes  communicated  to  man  by 
oysters,  and  certainly  may  frequently  be  so  transmitted 
both  by  this  form  and  by  other  shell-fish  that  are  eaten 
uncooked. 

Typhoid  fever,  known  and  dreaded  nearly  everywhere, 
is  caused  by  a  rod-like  bacterium  or  bacillus  that  enters 
the  body  through  the  digestive  tract.  Several  sources  of 
infection  are  very  well  understood.  The  most  common 
is  drinking  water,  and  many  epidemics  of  the  disease 
have  been  traced  to  it  in  ways  that  do  not  admit  of  doubt. 
Milk,  also,  is  often  the  medium  by  which  it  is  introduced, 
but  here  the  real  sources  have  been  proved  to  be  the  per- 
son handling  the  receptacles  for  it  or,  more  often,  the 
water  in  which  cans  or  bottles  have  been  washed.  The 
recent  epidemics  of  army  camps  also  have  shown  that  the 
organisms  may  be  introduced  into  the  digestive  tract  on 
solid  food.  In  such  cases  flies  that  have  gathered  in- 
fected material  on  their  appendages  alight  on  food  ready 
to  be  eaten,  and  leave  some  of  it  there.  It  is  probable 
that  the  bacillus  of  typhoid  passes  through  the  digestive 
tract  of  the  fly  without  being  injured,  and  if  allowed  to 
do  so,  the  fly  deposits  its  digestive  tract  discharges  on 
food.  Within  a  considerable  distance  of  a  typhoid  fever 
patient — or  convalescent  for  that  matter — these 
creatures,  formerly  regarded  merely  as  pests,  become 
deadly  enemies.  It  may  also  be  stated  as  a  fact  that 
epidemics  are  sometimes  caused  by  eating  uncooked 
oysters.  Several  times  they  have  been  traced  directly 
to  that  source.  The  evidence  collected  on  that  point  in 
this  country  and  abroad  is  conclusive,  and  a  biological 
study  of  the  habits  of  this  and  other  bivalves  clearly  in- 
dicates the  way  in  which  the  transmission  is  accomplished. 


1 68  Our  Food  Mollusks 

It  is  just  as  certain  that  clams  and  mussels  taken  from 
polluted  waters  may  as  readily  bear  the  organisms  of 
typhoid,  but  except  the  "  little  neck,"  these  are  not  so 
often  eaten  uncooked,  and  for  this  reason  the  fever  is 
not  so  frequently  contracted  through  their  agency. 

One  of  the  important  facts  concerning  the  disease  is 
that  vast  numbers  of  typhoid  bacilli  leave  the  body  of 
the  patient  in  the  digestive  tract  discharges  and  in  the 
urine,  and  more  important  still,  that  a  convalescent  from 
the  disease  is  as  dangerous  to  others  as  a  patient,  if  not 
more  so,  for  the  organisms  continue  to  appear  in  the  dis- 
charges from  his  body  for  many  months  after  recovery. 
With  this  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the  disease,  and 
the  organism  causing  it,  its  extermination  seemed  pos- 
sible, and  the  statement  was  made  and  often  repeated 
that  for  every  new  case  of  typhoid  there  should  be  a 
hanging.  But  recently  discovered  facts  indicate  that 
certain  persons  at  least,  after  having  suffered  from  the 
disease,  may  conti'nue  for  many  years,  and  perhaps  for 
life,  to  pass  typhoid  bacilli  from  the  body,  and  that  this 
may  be  true  even  when  the  disease  occurred  in  so  light 
or  obscure  a  form  that  its  true  nature  was  not  recog- 
nized. 

While  there  is  much  criminal  carelessness  in  the  mat- 
ter, especially  where  there  is  a  convenient  sewage  system, 
the  discharges  from  the  bodies  of  patients  are  some- 
times disinfected  before  being  disposed  of,  as  of  course 
they  always  should  be,  but  this  is  probably  never  true  of 
convalescents,  and  typhoid  carriers  are  a  constant  menace 
wherever  they  may  go.  The  result  is  that  the  sewage 
from  almost  any  city  constantly  contains  some  of  these 
organisms  which  remain  alive  in  it  for  a  long  time. 
Even  when  sewage  is  treated  in  disposal  plants,  organ- 


Bivalves  in  Relation  to  Disease          169 

isms  from  the  human  body  may  sometimes  be  found  in 
the  water  that  runs  away  from  them  to  our  rivers  and 
harbors  and  bays,  in  very  many  of  which,  along  the 
coast,  are  oyster  and  clam  beds.  It  is  altogether  prob- 
able that  other  intestinal  diseases  may  also  be  dissem- 
inated by  shell-fish  taken  from  polluted  waters,  but  not 
so  much  is  known  of  this  as  of  typhoid  fever. 

It  is  explained  in  the  chapter  on  the  feeding  habits  of 
shell-fish  that  large  quantities  of  water  are  constantly 
being  drawn  within  the  shell  and  into  the  interior  of  the 
basket-like  gills.  Even  the  minutest  of  solid  particles 
borne  by  this  stream  are  stopped  on  the  outer  surfaces  of 
these  organs  and  caused  to  adhere  in  masses  by  the  pres- 
ence of  a  sticky  mucus.  The  organisms  of  diseases, 
though  very  minute,  are  not  small  enough  to  escape. 
Several  gallons  of  water  every  day  pass  through  the  gills 
of  every  full  grown  oyster  or  clam,  and  every  solid- 
particle  is  removed  from  it  and  remains  in  the  body. 

This  collected  material  is  then  passed  on  to  the  mouth, 
and  once  in  the  digestive  tract  of  the  bivalve,  the  organ- 
isms dangerous  to  man  probably  are  eventually  killed  by 
the  digestive  fluids.  But  because  the  collecting  process 
never  ceases,  at  least  when  the  creatures  are  continually 
submerged  as  are  oysters  and  little  necks,  they  may  be 
present  on  the  gill  surfaces  at  all  times.  The  shell  sur- 
faces also  afford  lodging  places  for  them,  and  to  handle 
them  is  not  safe.  The  organisms  probably  are  not  at  all 
injured  by  the  gill  secretions,  and,  carried  into  the  human 
digestive  tract  when  a  raw  oyster  or  little  neck  is  eaten, 
will  multiply  and  cause  the  disease.  It  is  thus  plain  that 
even  if  relatively  few  in  the  water,  the  chances  are  that  a 
dangerous  number  of-  disease  organisms  will  be  strained 
out  of  it  by  these  shell-fish. 


170  Our  Food  Mollusks 

It  may  not  be  pleasant  to  contemplate  these  facts,  but 
that  there  is  here  a  real  menace  to  health  is  not  any 
longer  to  be  questioned,  and  the  more  generally  it  is  un- 
derstood the  better.  Between  twenty-five  and  thirty 
millions  of  bushels  of  oysters  alone  are  annually  sent  to 
market  from  our  shore  beds,  and  it  may  seem  strange 
that,  under  the  conditions,  any  considerable  number  of 
the  inhabitants  of  this  country  escape  some  terrible  dis- 
ease contracted  from  eating  shell-fish.  While  typhoid 
fever,  often  very  difficult  to  diagnose,  is  more  prevalent 
than  is  generally  realized,  there  is  no  necessity  for  alarm 
but  only  for  caution  in  this  case.  The  reason  that  there 
is  not  more  danger  from  bivalves  is  that,  while  they  are 
wonderfully  efficient  mechanisms  for  straining  danger- 
ous organisms  out  of  the  water,  such  organisms  prob- 
ably do  not  accumulate  in  living  masses  by  multiplication 
in  their  bodies,  but  are  perhaps  soon  destroyed  by  the 
digestive  fluids.  Only  those  that  happen  to  be  on  the 
gills  or  other  surfaces  of  the  body  at  the  time  of  market- 
ing are  dangerous.  Again,  long  neck  clams,  quahaugs, 
scallops,  and  even  oysters,  are  usually  cooked  before  being 
eaten,  and  any  dangerous  organisms  that  they  may  bear 
are  thus  killed.  A  healthy  human  body,  also,  is  able 
to  withstand  many  an  invasion  of  them  without  danger 
if  they  are  not  too  numerous. 

But  caution  certainly  is  necessary,  and  it  is  well  to 
know  something  of  the  source  of  this  food  when  pos- 
sible. There  is  slight  danger  from  little  necks  or  other 
clams  not  taken  in  the  mouths  of  harbors  or  rivers  bear- 
ing sewage.  The  same  is  undoubtedly  true  of  oysters 
taken  from  the  majority  of  beds  along  our  coast.  But 
the  trouble  lies  in  the  fact  that  before  food  mollusks  are 
marketed  they  are  almost  invariably  placed  for  a  few 


Bivalves  in  Relation  to  Disease          171 

hours  in  fresh  water  to  undergo  what  the  oystermen 
term  the  drinking  process.  Oysters  sold  in  the  shell  as 
well  as  those  that  have  been  shucked  are  usually  sub- 
jected to  the  fresh  water  treatment.  To  make  delays 
and  the  cost  of  transportation  as  slight  as  possible,  the 
localities  selected  for  this  are  almost  without  exception 
in  harbors  or  river  mouths  near  large  markets.  In  very 
many  cases  such  waters  bear  the  sewage  of  cities  of  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  inhabitants. 

It  should  be  recognized  that  this  source  of  danger  to 
the  public  health  could  easily  be  removed.  A  strong 
popular  sentiment  against  the  process  of  freshening 
oysters  might  lead  to  its  voluntary  discontinuance  by 
dealers,  or  to  legislative  prohibition,  and  the  enforce- 
ment of  laws  against  the  practice  would  largely  do  away 
with  the  danger.  The  end  might  perhaps  be  attained  if 
intelligent  health  officers  were  empowered  to  forbid  the 
sale  of  such  as  are  taken  from,  or  stored  in,  contam- 
inated waters.  The  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massa- 
chusetts is  the  first  to  prevent  the  sale  of  shell-fish  from 
certain  dangerous  bottoms. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  many  persons  who  may  be  will- 
ing to  accept  the  truth  of  statements  on  the  nature  of  in- 
fectious diseases  and  their  transmission,  yet  regard  the 
dissemination  of  such  knowledge  almost  with  resent- 
ment, apparently  because  it  is  disturbing  to  peace  of 
mind,  and  may  have  a  tendency  to  interfere  with  careless 
habits.  Who  has  not  heard  remarks  of  this  nature: — 
"  Our  fathers  lived  in  comparative  safety,  but  science  has 
surrounded  us  with  deadly  germs.  We  are  afraid  of 
the  crystal  water  from  the  old  oaken  bucket,  and  drink 
what  comes  through  the  mains  with  protesting  fears. 
We  are  worried  because  we  do  not  know  the  source  of 


172  Our  Food  Mollusks 

our  lettuce  and  celery.  Flies  and  mosquitoes  that  we  can- 
not escape  have  become  more  deadly  than  serpents.  We 
cannot  keep  the  dust  from  our  houses,  and  are  assured 
that  germs  lurk  in  it.  The  church,  the  theater,  the  cars 
are  germ-laden,  and  we  are  not  able  to  draw  a  comfort- 
able breath.  Away  with  such  nonsense !  We  must  live, 
and  the  germ  theorists  are  trying  to  make  existence  im- 
possible." 

But  there  is  little  advantage  in  trying  to  hide  from  the 
fact  that  recognized  dangers  to  health  and  life  are  more 
numerous  than  they  were  in  former  times.  The  cheer- 
ful thing  about  it  is  that  such  knowledge  has  revealed 
so  many  avenues  of  escape  from  them  that  were  before 
unknown.  Some  dangers  of  course  remain  to  be  faced, 
but  fear  of  them  is  ordinarily  unwarrantable,  and  famili- 
arity with  them  should  not  breed  fear  any  more  than  con- 
tempt, but  only  caution  which,  when  it  is  habitually  prac- 
tised, ceases  even  to  make  one  uncomfortable.  It  might 
be  supposed  that  even  a  dissection  of  the  body  of  an 
oyster  would  result  in  a  loss  of  appetite  for  it  as  an 
article  of  food,  but  expert  testimony  may  easily  be  had 
to  the  effect  that  this  is  not  true;  and  knowledge  of  the 
fact  that  some  oysters  carry  typhoid  bacilli  does  not  alter 
the  flavor  of  unfreshened  salt  water  individuals  that  one 
is  reasonably  certain  have  come  to  his  table  directly  from 
deep  waters  far  from  shore. 

While  every  one  must  take  some  risks  in  eating  and 
drinking,  there  is  little  excuse  for  foolhardiness,  and 
precaution  usually  costs  little.  So  far  as  oysters  are  con- 
cerned, the  reasonable  person  will  even  be  willing  to  do 
what  he  can  to  assure  himself  of  the  source  from  which 
they  come,  and  will  require  a  statement  from  the  packer 
who  supplies  his  retail  dealer  concerning  the  position  of 


Bivalves  in  Relation  to  Disease          173 

his  oyster  beds  and  the  directness  with  which  oysters 
are  transferred  from  them  to  the  shipping  containers. 
If  this  is  not  possible,  he  will  not  eat  his  oysters  un- 
cooked. He  will  also  examine  the  containers  employed 
by  his  retail  dealer,  and  ask  to  see  those  in  which  the 
oysters  were  shipped,  especially  when  they  are  shucked. 
One  fact  concerning  oysters  that  are  to  be  eaten  un- 
cooked cannot  be  too  strongly  expressed.  It  is  that,  as 
the  preparation  of  oysters  for  market  is  now  usually 
carried  on,  it  is  never  safe  to  eat  those  that  have  been 
freshened  or  bloated.  Those  coming  directly  from  salt 
water  beds  far  removed  from  shore  are  likely  to  be  safe 
if  ordinary  care  has  been  taken  in  washing  and  icing 
them.  Some  dealers  are  already  beginning  to  take  great 
precautions  against  the  possible  infection  of  the  oysters 
that  they  handle,  and  a  little  discrimination  on  the  part 
of  the  consumer  would  soon  add  to  their  number.  The 
matter  of  safety  rests  largely  with  him. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  NORTHERN  OYSTER  FIELD- 
HISTORICAL 

|  OR  the  sake  of  convenience,  the  oyster  coast 
may  arbitrarily  be  divided  into  several  fields. 
What  may  be  called  the  northern  field  in- 
cludes the  shores  of  New  England,  New 
York,  and  New  Jersey.  The  second  includes  the  Ches- 
apeake, the  third  the  Carolina  and  south  Atlantic  shores, 
the  fourth  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  fifth  the  Pacific 
coast.  A  brief  account  of  the  history  of  the  industry 
and  natural  conditions  peculiar  to  each  of  these  fields  will 
be  given. 

Cape  Cod  is  an  interesting  part  of  our  Atlantic  coast 
to  the  biologist,  because  it  tends  to  separate  two  faunas 
and  floras.  The  warm  gulf  stream,  turning  northward 
through  Florida  Strait,  follows  the  shore  closely  until  it 
reaches  this  cape,  and  is  then  deflected  away  from  the 
shore.  From  the  north,  the  cold  arctic  current  descends 
along  the  coasts  of  Labrador  and  Newfoundland,  a  por- 
tion of  it  continuing  southward  closely  hugging  the  Nova 
Scotia  and  Maine  coasts,  and  finally  ending  in  Massa- 
chusetts Bay  on  the  north  side  of  Cape  Cod.  Because 
of  the  resulting  differences  in  temperature,  many  marine 
animals  and  plants  are  found  on  one  side  of  the  cape, 
that  are  not  able  to  exist  on  the  other.  There  are,  how- 

174 


The  Northern  Oyster  Field  175 

ever,  many  forms  that  inhabit  the  cold  and  warm  waters 
alike,  and  among  them  are  the  oyster  and  the  soft 
clam. 

At  the  present  time  the  "  wild  "  oyster  is  practically  ex- 
tinct north  of  the  cape,  a  circumstance  that  might  lead  one 
to  believe  that  these  icy  northern  waters  are  not  congenial 
to  it,  and  there  is  much  foundation  for  such  a  belief. 
Its  growth  and  reproduction  are  much  more  rapid  in 
warmer  waters,  but  are  not  impossible  in  some  of  the 
sheltered  bays  even  of  Maine.  A  quarter  of  a  century 
ago  a  few  scattered  oysters,  the  descendants  of  native  an- 
cestors, were  known  to  exist  a  few  miles  up  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Piscataqua  River  in  New  Hampshire,  and 
it  is  possible  that  some  of  them  still  remain.  It  is  also 
true  that  the  oyster  has  existed  and  may  be  found  even 
to-day  farther  north  than  the  extent  of  our  coast.  In 
the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  lies  Prince  Edward  Island,  and 
between  it  and  the  shore  to  the  south  is  the  shallow 
Northumberland  Strait.  At  the  mouths  of  many  of  the 
small  rivers  entering  this,  both  on  the  mainland  and  on 
the  island,  are  oyster  beds  of  considerable  size. 

This  fact  alone  would  suggest  that  at  one  time  natural 
oyster  beds  connected  this  isolated  northern  region  with 
those  south  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  and  many  interesting 
facts,  especially  those  collected  by  Mr.  Ernest  Ingersoll, 
substantiate  that  theory.  It  is  perfectly  certain  that  for 
a  long  time  before  the  first  Europeans  visited  this  con- 
tinent, oysters  flourished  at  a  few  points  on  the  north 
New  England  coast,  and  that  they  were  still  abundant 
at  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  early  colonists. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  matter  comes  largely  from 
numerous  mounds  of  oyster  shells  that  dot  the  shore. 
Such  ancient  collections,  found  in  many  parts  of  the 


176  Our  Food  Mollusks 

world,  and  especially  on  sea  shores,  have  always  ex- 
cited great  interest,  and  have  told  many  tales  of 
ancient  peoples,  as  well  as  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
sea. 

The  Danish  Kjokkenmoddings,  or  "  heaps  of  kitchen 
refuse,"  among  the  first  to  be  studied,  were  formerly 
supposed  to  have  been  accumulated  by  wave  action,  and 
some  have  suggested  that  our  own  "  kitchen  middens  " 
were  also  merely  beach  deposits  thrown  up  in  great 
storms  or  by  the  action  of  ice.  But  the  critical  eye 
would  at  once  see  that  in  the  majority  of  cases  their 
form  and  position  alone  preclude  the  possibility  of  such 
an  origin,  and  examination  has  revealed  among  the 
sljells  and  rubbish  not  only  the  bones  of  many  beasts  and 
birds,  but  also  stone  implements,  pottery,  and  even  the 
charred  remains  of  ancient  fires. 

Such  shell  heaps  are  found  all  along  the  Pacific  coast, 
from  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to  the  Florida  keys  on 
the  Atlantic,  and  nearly  everywhere  on  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  Many  of  them  are  of  immense  size.  In  Flor- 
ida, there  are  vast  repositories,  the  accumulations  of 
ages.  On  the  Chesapeake,  single  heaps  often  cover 
many  acres,  in  some  places  to  a  depth  of  twenty  feet. 
In  the  northern  oyster  field,  there  is  a  great  kitchen  mid- 
den at  the  mouth  of  the  Damariscotta  River  in  Maine, 
the  contents  of  which  are  estimated  at  eight  million  cubic 
feet.  It,  like  other  shell  heaps,  contains  many  relics  of 
the  native  peoples  who  formed  it,  and  without  doubt 
marks  the  gathering-place  of  Indian  tribes,  many  of 
which  probably  came  from  a  distance  to  attend  great 
feasts. 

So  numerous  are  these  shell  collections  along  the 
Maine  coast  that  even  the  summer  visitor,  cruising  in  his 


The  Northern  Oyster  Field  177 

small  boat  among  its  rocky  islands,  that  rise  straight  up 
from  the  water,  or  in  its  innumerable  bays,  with  their 
steep,  wooded  shores,  may  easily  discover  them  for  him- 
self, if  he  will  explore  the  backs  of  the  little  beaches 
that  he  comes  upon  here  and  there.  The  same  is  true 
of  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia.  The  shells  that  he  finds, 
often  covered  by  a  growth  of  large  trees  above  them  on 
the  bank,  are  usually  those  of  the  soft  clam;  but  there 
are  also  many  heaps  all  along  the  coast  made  almost  en- 
tirely of  oyster  shells.  The  immense  pile  on  the  Dama- 
riscotta,  for  example,  is  composed  largely  of  them.  This 
proves  that  the  oyster  is  indigenous  to  these  cold  north- 
ern waters.  The  shells  are  not  those  of  a  northern  or 
of  an  extinct  species,  but  of  our  modern  American 
oyster. 

In  addition  to  the  evidence  afforded  by  shell  heaps, 
the  records  of  the  early  colonists  contain  many  refer- 
ences to  extensive  oyster  beds  on  this  northern  shore 
that  they  found  on  their  arrival,  and  from  which,  for 
many  years,  they  obtained  food.  Ingersoll  says  that 
there  is  abundant  evidence  that,  at  the  time  of  the  com- 
ing of  Europeans,  oysters  were  flourishing  in  the  Bay  of 
Fundy,  at  Mt.  Desert  Island,  at  the  mouths  of  Georges, 
Damariscotta,  and  Sheepscott  rivers,  in  Maine;  in  Ports- 
mouth Harbor  and  the  Great  Bay  of  Durham  River,  in 
New  Hampshire;  in  the  Parker,  Rowley,  Ipswich, 
Charles,  and  Mystic  rivers,  and  at  Weymouth,  Barn- 
stable,  and  Wellfleet,  in  Massachusetts. 

That  oysters  in  a  natural  state  do  not  now  exist  north 
of  Cape  Cod  as  formerly,  is  due  to  two  chief  causes. 
Their  numbers  were  greatly  reduced  by  excessive  tong- 
ing,  and  silt,  washed  from  cultivated  fields,  was  de- 
posited at  the  river  mouths,  thus  making  it  impossible 


178  Our  Food  Mollusks 

for  the  oyster  young  to  exist  as  in  the  earlier  time,  when 
the  waters  were  clear. 

The  early  settlers  also  found  oysters  in  great  abun- 
dance all  along  the  shore  southward  from  Cape  Cod. 
Natural  beds  were  present  in  many  parts  of  Buzzards 
and  Narragansett  bays,  and  almost  everywhere  on  the 
Connecticut  coast.  Just  across  the  sound  on  the  western 
half  of  the  Long  Island  shore,  they  were  equally  numer- 
ous. The  bays  on  the  sea  side  of  Long  Island  also 
contained  many  oysters.  All  about  Manhattan  Island 
they  were  very  abundant,  occurring  on  both  sides  of 
East  River  and  the  Hudson,  extending  up  the  latter  as 
far  as  Ossining.  The  waters  about  Staten  Island  bore 
a  rich  harvest.  In  New  Jersey,  Barnegat  Bay,  the  long, 
river-like  body  of  water  that  parallels  the  shore  line, 
afforded  suitable  conditions  for  oyster  growth,  as  did 
the  much  larger  Delaware  Bay,  south  of  it. 

The  early  colonists  on  the  northern  shore  established 
themselves  near  the  coast.  It  was  natural  that  they 
should  for  some  time  depend  largely  on  the  sea  for  their 
food.  Agriculture  on  a  scale  proportionate  to  their 
needs  had  to  be  developed  in  the  face  of  great  difficulties. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  waters  contained  fishes  in  in- 
credible numbers,  beaches  and  flats  were  crowded  with 
clams,  and  almost  every  shallow  bay  and  river  mouth 
supported  extensive  oyster  colonies.  These  could  be  ob- 
tained at  all  times  of  the  year.  Even  in  New  England, 
with  its  terrible  winters,  clams  were  dug  from  the 
beaches,  and  oysters  were  sometimes  taken  through  the 
ice. 

But  finally  oysters  became  so  scarce  in  Massachusetts 
Bay  that  before  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  laws 
were  passed  taxing  those  exported,  and  prohibiting 


The  Northern  Oyster  Field  179 

oyster  longing  by  outsiders.  These  measures,  however, 
were  insufficient,  and  natural  oyster  beds  soon  disap- 
peared entirely.  They  persisted  longest  at  Wellfleet, 
near  the  end  of  the  cape,  but  their  destruction  came, 
even  here,  from  excessive  fishing  about  the  year 

1775- 

The  natural  oyster  growth  on  the  shores  of  Con- 
necticut, Long  Island,  and  Manhattan  Island,  was  so 
extensive  that  it  was  long  before  there  was  any  anxiety 
about  its  depletion.  From  the  time  the  country  was 
first  settled,  however,  there  was  a  steady  decline,  and 
early  in  the  nineteenth  century  it  began  to  attract  at- 
tention. 

Meanwhile  it  had  been  observed  that  any  hard,  smooth 
body  thrqwn  into  the  water  near  oyster  beds  in  the  early 
summer  became  covered  with  young  oysters.  The  pos- 
sibilities of  human  control  over  natural  processes 
wrapped  up  in  such  a  simple  phenomenon,  would  escape 
the  attention  of  the  great  majority  of  men.  To  see  the 
possibilities  there  presented,  required  imagination — and 
imagination  under  intellectual  control,  such  as  has  ad- 
vanced science  at  all  times.  And  a  few  East  River 
oystermen  proved  themselves  to  be  real  scientists,  when, 
on  this  simple  natural  phenomenon,  they  built  up  a 
method  of  artificial  oyster  culture  that  brought  material 
well-being  not  only  to  themselves,  but  to  a  great  number 
of  their  countrymen  as  well.  It  should  not  be  forgotten, 
as  has  been  pointed  out  by  Professor  Brooks,  that  before 
the  people  of  France,  England,  Belgium,  or  Germany 
discovered  a  method  of  controlling  and  vastly  improving 
the  natural  production  by  the  sea  of  a  great  source  of 
human  food,  these  men  had  found  it,  and  had  put  it  into 
practice. 


180  Our  Food  Mollusks 

In  the  year  1855  a  ^ew  East  River  oystermen  began 
to  spread  clean  shells  on  some  of  the  unproductive  bot- 
toms near  City  Island.  This  was  done  under  the  pro- 
tection of  a  very  wise  law,  passed  in  the  same  year,  that 
gave  them  the  right  to  occupy  and  control  certain  definite 
tracts  on  the  river  bottom.  Multitudes  of  young  oysters 
settled  on  these  shells,  and  were  transplanted  and  cared 
for  until  they  had  become  large  enough  to  be  marketed. 
In  this  way  there  arose  a  method  of  controlling  the 
natural  production  of  the  water  that  is  similar  to  that 
practised  on  the  land. 

We  cannot  depend  on  a  natural,  undomesticated 
growth  of  land  plants  or  animals  for  food.  In  nature 
one  generation  usually  gives  rise  only  to  an  equal  number 
of  descendants  that  reach  maturity.  But  grains  and 
fruits  placed  on  waste  places,  in  soil  that  has  been  pre- 
pared for  them,  are  made  to  reproduce  many  fold,  and 
swine,  sheep,  and  cattle  that,  under  natural  conditions, 
could  not  long  maintain  numbers  great  enough  to  be  of 
use  to  man,  with  protection  from  him,  appear  on  a 
thousand  hills.  And  American  oyster  culture,  though 
simple,  affords  the  essential  element  of  protection  from 
destructive  natural  agencies  that  has  covered  desert 
places  with  plenty.  Compared  with  the  achievements  of 
agriculture  those  of  the  early  sea  farmers  seem  simple; 
but  it  should  not  escape  attention  that  it  had  always  been 
the  common  belief  that  the  organisms  of  the  sea  were  un- 
tameable.  It  required  bold  thinking,  unfettered  by  the 
prejudice  of  generations,  to  conceive  of  the  possibility  of 
adding  such  a  realm  to  man's  dominion. 

Connecticut  and  other  northern  states  with  waters 
suitable  for  oyster  growth,  followed  New  York  in  enact- 
ing laws  fostering  the  new  industry.  By  their  protection 


The  Northern  Oyster  Field  181 

there  was  built  up  an  artificial  source  of  supply  while 
that  of  nature  was  being  destroyed.  It  must  not  be  sup- 
posed, however,  that  this  was  accomplished  without  a 
struggle.  Everywhere  there  was  strenuous  opposition  to 
the  sale  or  lease  of  bottoms,  particularly  from  tho:e 
whose  living  depended  on  the  gathering  of  oysters  from 
natural  beds,  and  the  lawmakers  very  wisely  decided 
that  the  industry  was  possible  only  under  private  own- 
ership, as  in  the  case  of  agriculture. 

But  some  of  the  colonial  charters  had  reserved  all 
beaches  below  high  tide  line  for  the  State.  There  were  no 
private  beach  rights  or  rights  to  shore  bottoms  under 
water.  Probably  no  one  desired  rights  to  such  bottoms 
until  oyster  culture  was  developed.  By  that  time  the 
idea  had  been  fixed  by  tradition  that  the  sea  was  and 
should  be  the  common  possession  of  all.  So  objection 
was  made  not  only  to  the  sale  or  lease  of  bottoms  bearing 
oyster  beds,  but  also  barren  bottoms  on  which  oysters 
had  never  been  known  to  grow.  Oyster  culture  has  had 
to  contend  against  this  principle  at  all  points  along  the 
entire  coast.  This  state  of  mind  is  typically  set  forth 
by  Mr.  Ingersoll,  who  describes  the  efforts  of  a  New 
Brunswick  fisheries  inspector  to  convert  the  natives  to 
the  idea  of  oyster  culture,  which  of  course  involved  the 
lease  of  bottoms.  They  had  destroyed  the  natural  beds 
by  excessive  raking,  but  would  not  hear  to  a  lease.  The 
only  argument  that  he  elicited  was  "  My  grand f adder 
rake  oysters,  my  fadder  he  rake  oysters  when  he  want 
'em,  and  by  Gar!  I  rake  him  too." 

One  of  the  great  objections  to  sale  or  lease  was  that 
monopolies  would  thereby  be  fostered.  This  objection 
to  the  lease  has  been  used  in  every  state  possessing  oyster 
bottoms.  As  a  result,  the  earlier  laws  allowed  the  lease 


1 82  Our  Food  Mollusks 

only  of  a  small  plot  to  a  single  person.  Connecticut,  for 
example,  allowed  but  two  acres.  Ordinarily  these  were 
quite  insufficient  for  the  support  of  a  family,  but  it  was 
not  difficult  to  evade  this  provision  when  a  man  was  al- 
lowed also  to  develop  the  adjacent  acres  leased  by  "  his 
sisters,  his  cousins,  and  his  aunts."  In  this  way  a  single 
person  often  came  to  control  a  large  area. 

It  was  soon  found  that  such  monopolistic  holdings 
not  only  worked  no  injury,  but  were  of  great  benefit  to 
every  one  in  the  neighborhood  including  those  who 
worked  only  on  the  public  beds,  who  found  the  rapidly 
extending  markets  and  high  prices  obtained  by  the  large 
holder  much  to  their  liking.  More  liberal  laws  in  this 
slate  finally  allowed  the  unlimited  lease  or  sale  of  barren 
bottoms.  This  has  proved  to  be  the  wisest  possible  pro- 
vision. 

One  interesting  provision  of  the  earlier  oyster  laws 
that  has,  in  some  states,  been  preserved  in  those  now  in 
operation,  is  the  close  season.  Where  this  is  in  force, 
oysters  may  not  be  dredged  or  marketed  during  the  sum- 
mer months.  Southern  states  particularly  should  note 
that  experience  in  the  northern  field  has  proved  the  futil- 
ity of  the  close  season  as  a  protection  to  the  natural  beds, 
and  should  recognize  the  injustice  of  allowing  a  culturist 
tc  market  a  commodity,  produced  on  his  own  property, 
only  during  a  limited  season.  It  is  an  unjust  and  purpose- 
less restriction. 

The  entire  futility  of  a  close  season  as  a  provision  to 
preserve  natural  beds,  is  well  illustrated  by  the  destruc- 
tion in  early  days  of  natural  beds  near  New  Haven, 
Conn.  This  has  been  graphically  described  by  Mr.  Inger- 
soll  as  follows  : — 

"  The  fishing  was  done  mainly  for  each  man's  winter 


The  Northern  Oyster  Field  183 

supply,  and  nobody  paid  much  attention  to  any  regula- 
tion of  it  beyond  the  close-time  in  summer.  Gradually, 
however,  these  public  river  oysters  became  more  rare  and 
coveted.  The  law  was  '  off  '  on  the  first  day  of  Novem- 
ber, and  all  the  natural  beds  of  the  state  became  open  to 
any  person  who  wished  to  work  them.  In  anticipation 
of  the  date,  great  preparations  were  made  in  the  towns 
along  the  shore,  and  even  for  twenty  miles  back  from 
the  sea  side.  Boats  and  rakes  and  baskets  and  bags  were 
put  in  order.  The  day  before,  large  numbers  of  wagons 
came  toward  the  shore  from  the  back  country,  bringing 
hundreds  of  men  with  their  utensils.  Among  these  were 
not  unfrequently  seen  boats,  borne  in  the  rigging  of  a 
hay  cart,  ready  to  be  launched  on  the  expected  morning. 
It  was  a  time  of  great  excitement,  and  nowhere  greater 
than  along  the  Quinepiac.  On  the  day  preceding,  farmers 
flocked  into  Fair  Haven  from  all  the  surrounding  country 
and  brought  with  them  boats  and  canoes,  of  antique  pat- 
tern and  ruinous  aspect.  These  rustics  always  met  with 
a  riotous  welcome  from  the  town  boys,  who  hated  rural 
competition.  They  were  very  likely  to  find  their  boats,  if 
not  carefully  watched,  stolen  and  hidden  before  they  had 
a  chance  to  launch  them,  or  even  temporarily  disabled. 
These  things  diversified  the  day  and  enlivened  a  com- 
munity usually  very  peaceful  if  not  dull.  As  midnight 
approached,  men  dressed  in  oilskin  and  carrying  oars, 
paddles,  rakes,  and  tongs  collected  all  along  the  shore, 
where  a  crowd  of  women  and  children  assembled  to  see 
the  fun.  Every  sort  of  craft  was  prepared  for  action, 
and  they  lined  the  whole  margin  of  the  river  and  harbor 
on  each  side  in  thick  array.  As  the  '  witching  hour  ' 
drew  near,  the  men  took  their  seats  with  much  hilarity 
and  nerved  their  arms  for  a  few  moments'  vigorous 


184  Our  Food  Mollusks 

work.  No  eye  could  see  the  face  of  the  great  church 
clock  on  the  hill,  but  lanterns  glimmered  on  a  hundred 
watch-dials  and  then  were  set  down,  as  only  a  coveted 
minute  remained.  There  was  a  hush  in  the  merriment 
along  the  shore,  an  instant's  calm,  and  then  the  great  bell 
struck  a  deep-toned  peal.  It  was  like  an  electric  shock. 
Backs  bent  to  oars  and  paddles  churned  the  water.  From 
opposite  banks,  waves  of  boats  leaped  out  and  advanced 
toward  one  another  in  the  darkness,  as  though  bent  on 
mutual  annihilation.  '  The  race  was  to  the  swift  and 
every  stroke  was  the  mightiest/  Before  the  twelve  blows 
upon  the  loud  bell  had  ceased  their  reverberations,  the 
oyster  beds  had  been  reached,  tongs  were  scraping  the 
long-rested  bottom,  and  the  season's  campaign  upon  the 
Quinepiac  had  begun.  In  a  few  hours,  the  crowd  upon 
some  beds  would  be  such  that  the  boats  were  pressing 
close  together.  They  were  all  compelled  to  move  along 
as  one,  for  none  could  resist  the  pressure  of  the  multi- 
tude. The  more  thickly  covered  beds  were  quickly 
cleaned  of  their  bivalves.  The  boats  were  full,  the  wag- 
ons were  full,  and  many  had  secured  what  they  called 
their  '  winter's  stock '  before  the  day  was  done,  and 
thousands  of  bushels  of  oysters  were  packed  away  under 
blankets  of  sea-weed,  in  scores  of  cellars.  The  first  day 
was  the  great  day.  By  the  next  day  the  rustic  crowd  had 
departed,  but  the  oysters  continued  to  be  sought.  A 
week  of  this  sort  of  attack,  however,  usually  sufficed  to 
clean  the  bottom  so  thoroughly  that  subsequent  raking 
was  of  small  account." 

To-day  natural  sources  of  supply  in  the  northern  field 
amount  to  little  except  for  seed  that  they  produce.  The 
same  has  long  been  true  in  Europe.  There  are  still  enor- 
mous natural  oyster  reefs  in  the  south  Atlantic  and  Gulf 


The  Northern  Oyster  Field  185 

fields,  but  they  cannot  last.  Where  there  is  such  great 
abundance,  it  seems  to  be  difficult  to  believe  that  it  is 
not  inexhaustible.  Though  it  must  disappear,  its  place 
will  undoubtedly  be  taken  before  that  event  by  a  better 
and  much  larger  supply  such  as  now  exists  in  the  North. 


r  ^ 

/    I 


CHAPTER  XIII 

!7  PRESENT  CONDITIONS  IN  THE 
NORTHERN  FIELD 


F  one  were  to  sit  before  a  large  map  of  the 
United  States  and,  compass  in  hand,  compare 
the  extent  of  other  parts  of  the  Atlantic  and 
Gulf  shore  line  with  that  extending  from  Del- 
aware Bay  to  Narragansett  Bay,  which  comprises  what 
may  be  called  the  northern  oyster  field,  he  would  dis- 
cover, if  he  were  not  already  acquainted  with  the  fact, 
that  in  extent  the  latter  is  relatively  a  very  short  stretch 
of  coast.  To  be  sure,  this  is  merely  a  matter  of  miles, 
but  it  must  be  admitted,  after  measuring  the  irregular 
shore  lines  of  inland  waters  connected  with  the  sea,  that 
there  are  many  of  them  between  the  Delaware  and  the 
Mexican  boundary. 

186 


Conditions  in  the  Northern  Field        187 

But  a  very  large  part  of  this  is  actually  or  potentially 
a  part  of  our  oyster  territory.  Here  is  a  wonderful  suc- 
cession of  bays,  estuaries,  sounds  and  lagoons,  vast 
nurseries  in  which  multitudes  of  marine  animals  and 
plants  flourish;  where  conditions  for  shell-fish  growth 
in  particular  are  unrivaled,  and  of  these  the  oyster  is 
most  widely  distributed  and  naturally  most  abundant. 

Our  attention  is  often  called  in  a  deprecating  manner 
to  the  enthusiastic  admiration  of  many  Americans  for 
the  big  things  possessed  by  their  own  country.  Even  if 
this  state  of  mind  might  be  regarded  as  a  national  char- 
acteristic, it  would  be  possible  to  suggest  more  grevious 
and  less  patriotic  sentiments  held  by  some  of  those  who 
number  themselves  among  the  judicious.  Perhaps 
something  may  be  said  for  pride  in  the  great  achieve- 
ments and  great  resources  of  one's  own  land  even  when 
its  expression  involves  comparisons. 

Possibly  it  would  do  no  harm  to  make  the  statement 
for  the  benefit  of  such  enthusiastic  Americans,  that  no- 
where do  oysters  grow  so  rapidly,  nowhere  are  they  so 
abundant,  nowhere  may  they  be  so  easily  cultivated,  and 
nowhere  is  the  oyster  area  of  such  vast  extent,  as  on  our 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  shores.  In  truth  here  is  very  much  the 
largest  thing  of  its  kind  in  the  world. 

They  may  also  know,  if  they  choose  to  pursue  the  mat- 
ter, that  there  are  to-day  immense  oyster  covered  areas 
in  the  South  that  lie  undisturbed,  that  natural  beds  in  the 
Chesapeake  have  been  tonged  and  dredged  for  nearly 
three  centuries  without  becoming  entirely  exhausted ; 
that  in  northern  waters  cultivated  areas  have  taken  the 
place  of  natural  beds,  and  are  producing  more  and  finer 
oysters  than  before;  and  that  much  larger  tracts,  on 
which  oysters  formerly  never  grew,  are  yielding  a  har- 


1 88  Our  Food  Mollusks 

vest  equally  abundant  and  valuable.  As  a  home  for 
mollusks  useful  as  human  food,  no  other  shore  is  com- 
parable to  this. 

Even  in  size,  the  eastern  American  oyster  has  a  great 
advantage  over  its  European  cousin.  Some,  having  be- 
come familiar  with  the  diminutive  oyster  obtained 
abroad,  may  question  the  superiority  of  mere  size  in  our 
native  product.  There  is  much,  it  may  be  said,  in  dainti- 
ness and  delicacy.  Hence  the  popularity  of  Blue  Points 
and  other  baby  oysters  that  formerly  found  no  favor  in 
American  markets.  On  account  of  their  very  small, 
thin,  rounded  shells,  these  are  in  great  demand.  But  it  is 
a  safe  statement  that  the  average  American  who  has 
experienced  the  Blue  Point  flavor  in  New  York,  could 
not  sit  down  in  Norfolk  to  half  a  dozen  large,  fat,  adult 
Lynnhavens,  which  afford  not  only  the  finest  flavor,  but 
also  something  to  eat,  without  declaring  the  superiority 
of  the  latter.  However  the  matter  of  superiority  as  an 
article  of  food  may  be  decided,  the  fact  remains  that  the 
American  oyster,  north  or  south,  will  become  as  large 
as  the  Lynnhaven  if  allowed  to  grow  under  favorable 
conditions,  while  a  large  native  oyster  in  European  waters 
is  an  impossibility. 

The  flat  and  the  Portuguese  oysters  of  Europe  have  a 
shell  but  two  or  three  inches  long  and  are  very  thin. 
The  eastern  American  oyster,  on  the  other  hand,  some- 
times attains  a  length  of  a  foot  or  more.  "  There  be 
great  ones,"  wrote  William  Wood  of  Massachusetts  in 
1634,  "in  form  of  a  shoe-home;  some  be  a  foot  long." 
A  shell  fifteen  inches  long  was  taken  from  the  Damaris- 
cotta  shell  heap  in  Maine.  Oysters  six  or  seven  inches 
long  and  more  than  four  inches  wide  are  sometimes 
found  in  our  markets. 


Conditions  in  the  Northern  Field        189 

Oysters  from  some  localities  are  thin  shelled,  as  in  the 
eastern  end  of  the  Great  South  Bay,  the  home  of  the 
Blue  Point.  Usually  the  shell  is  thick  and  heavy.  Its 
thickness  depends  on  the  amount  of  lime  in  solution  in 
the  water.  In  the  Carolina  sounds  and  southward,  as 
also  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  natural  oysters  are  charac- 
terized by  relatively  small  and  much  elongated  shells. 
But  without  question,  all  of  these  variations  in  appear- 
ance are  due  simply  to  local  differences  in  environment, 
and  there  is  a  single  species,  Ostrea  virginica,  on  the  At- 
lantic and  Gulf  coasts.  In  this  form  the  sexes  are  sepa- 
rate. It  is  sometimes  stated  that  an  individual  may 
change  its  sex,  being  male  one  year  and  female  another, 
but  there  is  no  foundation  for  such  a  statement. 

One  important,  element  in  the  development  of  the 
modern  industry  in  the  North  was  the  aid  received  from 
the  Chesapeake.  The  planting  of  small  oysters  never 
began  anywhere  until  the  natural  beds  had  been  practi- 
cally destroyed.  The  demand  for  small  seed  oysters  then 
outgrew  the  supply. 

As  early  as  1825,  a  few  small  seed  oysters  from  Ches- 
apeake Bay  were  transferred  to  waters  near  Staten  Island. 
At  about  the  same  time  the  town  of  Wellfleet  on  Cape 
Cod  had  sent  to  Buzzards  Bay  and  then  to  Connecticut 
for  seed  oysters.  Finally  it  began  to  receive  them  from 
Virginia,  and  during  the  decade  following  1850,  from 
one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  bushels 
were  transported  each  year  from  the  Chesapeake  to  beds 
near  this  town.  The  Civil  War  made  it  impossible  to 
obtain  much  seed,  and  Wellfleet  did  not  subsequently 
recover  its  position  as  an  oyster  center. 

During  these  same  years  just  preceding  the  war,  Nar- 
ragansett  Bay,  Long  Island  Sound,  New  York  Bay,  and 


190  Our  Food  Mollusks 

Delaware  Bay  each  had  come  to  depend  on  the  Chesa- 
peake for  its  seed.  Each  year  half  a  million  bushels 
were  used  in  Narragansett  Bay,  and  an  equal  number  at 
New  Haven,  while  nearly  a  million  bushels  were  trans- 
ferred to  the  west  or  Delaware  side  of  Delaware  Bay. 
Even  after  the  war  this  great  business  continued. 

But  in  the  course  of  time,  the  Connecticut  oystermen 
perfected  the  methods  of  capturing  young  oysters  in  their 
own  waters.  By  the  year  1880  the  transportation  of 
southern  seed  to  the  northern  field  had  fallen  off  greatly. 
Ever  since,  there  has  been  a  steady  decline,  and  to-day 
very  little  Chesapeake  seed  is  planted  north  of  Delaware 
Bay.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Connecticut  culturists  now 
are  able  not  only  to  supply  the  entire  northern  field,  but 
are  sending  an  increasingly  large  quantity  of  seed  to  the 
Pacific  coast  as  well  as  to  Europe. 

Instead  of  suffering  from  the  loss  of  this  business,  the 
Virginia  shore  of  the  Chesapeake,  from  which  the  greater 
part  of  the  supply  had  come,  really  gained  by  it.  Soon 
after  the  war,  planting  began  in  that  state,  and  at  present 
the  supply  of  seed  from  the  natural  beds  of  the  lower 
Chesapeake  is  barely  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  those 
there  engaged  in  the  industry. 

It  is  seldom  possible  for  a  legislative  body  deliberately 
to  plan  the  organization  and  future  development  of  an 
industry,  and  to  formulate  laws  establishing  the  plan, 
before  the  industry  exists.  Such  a  feat  was  accom- 
plished with  every  prospect  of  success,  by  the  legislature 
of  Louisiana,  when  it  formulated  its  present  oyster  laws. 
The  result  will  be  to  avoid  years  of  wasteful  experiment 
and  controversy  and  to  add  rapidly  and  permanently  to 
the  wealth  of  the  state. 

But  this  was  only  possible  because  other  states  had 


Conditions  in  the  Northern  Field        191 

slowly  and  painfully  solved  the  problems  involved  in 
modern  oyster  culture.  It  was  necessary  for  New  York 
and  Connecticut  to  legislate  and  repeal  and  legislate 
again  until  their  present  wise  and  effective  laws  govern- 
ing the  oyster  industry  had  been  developed.  This,  of 
necessity,  was  a  matter  of  slow  growth.  Unforeseen  ob- 
stacles continually  arose.  Interests  clashed,  and  many 
difficulties  had  to  be  adjusted  by  the  courts.  New  ques- 
tions arose  with  the  development  of  the  industry,  and  a 
wise  general  policy  of  legislation  came  only  after  a  long 
course  of  demonstration  and  education.  Not  all  that  is 
desirable  has  yet  been  gained,  but  a  great  and  valuable 
source  of  wealth  has  been  established. 

The  interest  of  the  outsider  still  centers  about  the  state 
of  Connecticut.  From  the  beginning  it  has  been  the 
leader  in  accomplishment  on  the  oyster  field  and  in  legis- 
lation. Neighboring  states,  and  then  those  more  distant, 
have  followed  its  example.  It  has  been  necessary  for 
them  to  do  so  in  order  to  keep  in  the  field.  It  may  be 
observed  that  in  Connecticut  it  has  really  been  the  indi- 
vidual culturist  and  not  the  state  that  has  led  in  the  won- 
derful development  of  the  oyster  industry.  The  .culturist 
has  demonstrated  his  needs  and  the  state  has  wisely  sup- 
plied them  by  legislation.  On  the  other  hand  in  Louisi- 
ana and  more  recently  in  Maryland,  the  state  itself  has 
become  the  leader;  and  this  also  is  undoubtedly  wise,  for 
neither  state  contemplates  ownership  of  the  industry. 
The  plan  is  simply  to  insure  the  success  of  private  in- 
terests that  may  engage  in  it,  and  this,  under  the  laws 
that  have  been  formulated,  seems  to  be  assured. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  contrast  the  old  with  the  newer 
plan  of  state  control  over  the  oyster  industry  in  Connec- 
ticut. There  is  still  much  to  be  learned,  by  states  that 


192  Our  Food  Mollusks 

have  not  had  the  experience,  from  a  history  of  the  prog- 
ress that  has  been  made  in  oyster  legislation. 

Previous  to  the  year  1880,  a  system  of  local  control 
over  Connecticut  waters  was  in  operation.  The  state 
relegated  to  the  towns  the  disposal,  under  certain  limita- 
tions, of  shore  privileges  on  their  boundaries.  The  select- 
men, or  an  oyster  committee  in  each  town,  were  given  the 
power  to  "  designate  "  suitable  places  in  the  waters  of 
the  town  for  the- planting  or  cultivation  of  oysters,  clams, 
or  mussels.  But  the  holding  of  each  person  was  not  to 
exceed  two  acres. 

The  plan  was  an  utter  failure  from  many  causes.  In 
the  first  place,  no  protection  was  afforded  the  culturist. 
Without  it  oyster  culture  is  impossible.  Planted  oysters 
were  stolen  with  perfect  impunity  because  there  were  no 
laws  punishing  the  act,  which  was  everywhere  regarded 
as  a  joke.  The  towns  appointed  no  officers  to  protect 
leased  bottoms. 

In  the  majority  of  cases  the  holdings  were  not  even 
mapped,  and  titles  to  the  land  were  very  insecure. 
There  were  no  hydrographic  surveys.  When  boundary 
stakes  were  lost  in  storms  or  removed  by  ice,  contentions 
among  adjacent  owners  were  inevitable,  and  no  legal  de- 
cisions of  such  quarrels  were  to  be  had.  Non-residents 
were  not  permitted  to  lease  bottoms.  Quarrels  over 
town  boundaries  arose,  and  the  rulings  of  one  town  com- 
mittee were  different  from  those  of  another.  If,  in  spite 
of  all  these  difficulties,  one  were  willing  to  risk  capital  in 
an  attempt  at  oyster  culture,  he  was  able  to  do  nothing  on 
two  acres  of  bottom.  The  result  was  open  and  wholesale 
fraud  in  gaining  control  of  other  holdings  than  his  own. 
Concerted  action  by  culturists,  necessary  to  establish  and 
maintain  a  large  market,  or  to  protect  the  oyster  terri- 


Conditions  in  the  Northern  Field        193 

tory  from  starfish  and  thieves,  was  impossible  under  the 
conditions  imposed.  Inadequate  and  absurd  as  this  plan 
of  local  control  now  appears  to  have  been,  it  was  adopted 
by  the  majority  of  the  states  possessing  oyster  shores; 
and  even  to-day  the  same  ancient  and  farcical  laws  pre- 
vent the  establishment  of  a  soft  clam  industry  in  New 
England. 

Since  1880  there  has  been  a  gradual  change  of  plan  in 
Connecticut,  New  York,  and  in  other  states,  but  the  old 
method  has  not  yet  been  entirely  abandoned.  Waters  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  towns,  on  the  shores  of  some 
states,  are  left  in  their  care,  though  the  powers  of  select- 
men and  oyster  committees  are  limited  in  such  a  way  that 
local  regulations  must  conform  closely  to  the  general  plan 
governing  all  waters  of  the  state.  On  application  from 
the  town,  the  Superior  Court  may  appoint  a  committee 
that  shall  locate  natural  beds,  and  the  town  may  then 
grant  perpetual  franchises  in  barren  bottoms  to  be  used 
as  oyster  beds.  A  town  is  not  allowed  to  grant  oyster 
bottoms  to  its  own  residents  alone.  This  feature  of  the 
system  of  control  is  cumbersome  and  unnecessary,  and 
should  be  abandoned.  But  the  state  now  maintains  con- 
trol of  the  greater  part  of  the  oyster  territory  within  its 
boundaries.  While  it  has  reserved  six  thousand  acres  of 
natural  beds,  the  remainder  of  the  bottom  is  held  for 
sale. 

The  real  beginning  of  the  present  prosperity  of  the 
industry  was  inaugurated  by  an  elaborate  survey  of  the 
waters  of  the  sound,  based  on  the  triangulations  of  the 
United  States  Coast  Survey.  Large  maps,  clearly  de- 
fining all  holdings,  are  published  from  time  to  time  by 
a  state  Oyster  Commission,  and  are  available  to  any  one 
desiring  them. 


194  Our  Food  Mollusks 

That  such  a  survey  is  a  necessity  does  not  yet  seem  to 
be  realized  by  some  of  the  southern  states.  Without  it 
an  incontestible  title  is  impossible,  and  in  Connecticut 
it  has  put  an  end  to  a  most  fertile  source  of  discontent 
and  strife  that  arises  everywhere  when  the  sale  or  lease 
of  bottoms  is  in  question.  There  has  been  in  every  state 
a  strong  demand  that  the  natural  beds  be  reserved  as 
public  property.  But  what  is  a  natural  bed?  The  an- 
swer is  clear  when  natural  oysters  lie  thickly  massed, 
but  there  are  few  such  tracts.  Such  areas,  once  existing, 
have  been  tonged  and  dredged  until  oysters  are  few  and 
scattered.  Are  they  still  natural  beds  ? 

The  definition  of  a  Maryland  judge  has  been  accepted 
everywhere  on  the  coast.  According  to  this,  a  natural 
bed  is  a  bottom  on  which  oysters  propagating  by  nature 
are  numerous  enough  to  afford  a  living  wage  to  the  oys- 
terman.  This  is  arbitrary  and  indefinite,  but  it  cannot 
be  bettered.  Its  acceptance  does  not  settle  specific  cases, 
for  it  does  not  and  cannot  determine  what  constitutes  a 
living  wage.  The  public  is  determined  to  retain  its 
"  rights  "  to  natural  beds,  and  culturists  desire  to  buy  or 
lease  the  bottoms.  Who  shall  decide  between  them? 

In  this  matter  the  legislature  of  Connecticut  did  a 
very  wise  thing.  It  provided  its  Oyster  Commission 
with  a  survey  of  the  bottoms,  and  gave  it  power  to  de- 
cide, after  a  careful  examination,  what  bottoms  con- 
tained natural  oysters  sufficient  for  a  daily  wage,  and 
what  did  not.  This  they  did  fairly,  but  of  necessity, 
quite  arbitrarily,  defining  and  charting  the  outlines  of  all 
the  natural  beds  in  the  state.  They  then  proceeded  to 
sell  and  lease  the  remainder.  When  their  boundaries 
were  contested,  the  State  Supreme  Court  upheld  them. 
That  was  the  end  of  the  matter. 


Conditions  in  the  Northern  Field        195 

Other  states  have  followed  the  example  of  Con- 
necticut in  this.  Even  Maryland  has  recently  had  the 
courage  to  do  so,  and  if  the  decisions  of  its  Oyster  Com- 
missioners in  establishing  boundary  lines  are  upheld  by 
the  state  courts,  much  future  trouble  will  be  avoided. 

The  amount  of  land  that  may  be  owned  or  leased  by 
an  individual  or  corporation  in  the  state  is  now  not  lim- 
ited by  law.  The  ancient  fear  of  an  oyster  monopoly 
seems  to  have  disappeared.  Titles  to  oyster  grounds 
may  be  transferred.  If  grounds  are  found  by  experi- 
ment to  be  unsuitable  for  oyster  culture,  they  may  be  re- 
leased to  the  state.  Speculating  with  oyster  grounds  is 
made  illegal,  and  such  a  practice  is  difficult,  for  grounds 
not  occupied  in  good  faith  for  the  planting  or  cultivation 
of  oysters,  may  revert  to  the  state  at  the  end  of  five 
years. 

A  perpetual  franchise  for  the  cultivation  of  oysters  on 
barren  ground  may  be  had  from  the  state  at  one  dollar 
an  acre.  It  has  not  been  the  plan  in  Connecticut  to  re- 
ceive a  large  revenue  from  the  sale  of  land,  but  rather 
to  vest  the  great  wealth  of  the  industry  with  the  citizens. 
In  this  way  taxable  property  on  shore  is  greatly  in- 
creased, and  a  small  tax  also  is  levied  on  the  oyster  beds. 
In  order  to  determine  the  amount  of  this  tax,  owners 
must  make  an  annual  statement  of  the  value  of  their 
property,  and  the  Oyster  Commissioners  declare  a  tax  of 
one  and  a  half  per  cent,  on  the  valuation  given.  Some 
revenue  also  is  derived  from  licenses  granted  to  boats 
which,  with  thirty-pound  dredges  and  tongs,  are  allowed 
to  take  oysters  from  the  natural  beds.  This  direct  rev- 
enue, however,  amounts  to  comparatively  little.  The  ac- 
cepted view  of  the  situation  seems  to  be  that  a  five 
million  dollar  business  in  the  state  is  a  better  investment 


196  Our  Food  Mollusks 

than  a  smaller  one  that  would  pay  a  larger  direct  tax  for 
its  existence.  Rhode  Island  and  some  other  states  have 
adopted  the  latter  plan. 

The  market  value  of  Connecticut  oyster  beds  varies  as 
real  estate  values  do  everywhere.  The  valuation  prob- 
ably ranges  from  one  to  forty  dollars  an  acre,  and  in  a 
few  cases  is  much  greater. 

One  of  the  most  important  features  of  the  Connecticut 
law  is  the  provision  it  makes  for  the  protection  of  own- 
ers of  private  beds.  A  number  of  state  police  are  em- 
ployed to  protect  private  grounds,  and  are  given  the 
power  of  sheriffs  in  making  arrests  and  seizures. 

The  law  also  provides  that  sheriffs  and  constables,  as 
well  as  oyster  police,  shall,  and  that  any  other  person 
may,  seize  any  boat  or  vessel  illegally  used  in  dredging, 
wherever  found  after  the  offense  has  been  committed, 
within  one  year.  If  now  such  property  is  proved  to 
have  been  used  contrary  to  law,  it  is  sold,  and  half  the 
proceeds  is  paid  to  the  person  making  the  seizure. 

If  every  other  state  owning  oyster  grounds  possessed 
such  a  law  as  that  of  Connecticut  directed  against  oyster 
thieves,  and  would  enforce  it,  that  form  of  larceny,  so 
exasperating  in  some  localities,  would  be  controlled.  It 
provides  a  maximum  fine  of  five  hundred  dollars,  or  im- 
prisonment for  one  year.  American  criminal  proceed- 
ings are  notoriously  lax  everywhere,  and  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  arrested  men  are  often  discharged,  and  that 
others  have  their  cases  appealed ;  but  on  the  whole,  prop- 
erty in  Long  Island  Sound  is  as  well  protected  as  on  the 
land.  Fines  and  imprisonment  are  also  provided  as  pen- 
alties for  injuring  oyster  inclosures  or  buoys  used  in 
bounding  them. 

The  other  states  of  the  northern  field  possess  oyster 


Conditions  in  the  Northern  Field        197 

laws  that  are,  in  many  of  their  essential  features,  similar 
to  these;  and  though  much  revision  may  become  neces- 
sary, it  may  be  stated  in  a  general  way  that  the  northern 
field  has  solved  the  legal  problems  involved  in  the  in- 
dustry. 

It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  one  very  desirable 
provision  is  omitted  from  the  oyster  laws  of  all  states  in 
the  Union  having  mollusk  industries.  It  is  one  for  the 
protection  of  the  public  against  shell-fish  contaminated  by 
the  germs  of  human  diseases,  and  certainly  one  that 
should  everywhere  be  demanded.  While  the  laws  of 
several  states  prohibit  the  discharge  of  sewage  into  fresh- 
water streams,  none  refer  to  the  contamination  of  salt 
waters  on  their  boundaries  by  this  means.  Neither  is  it 
illegal  to  offer  for  sale  shell-fish  taken  from  such  waters. 
The  danger,  especially  from  typhoid  fever,  is  great  in 
such  cases,  and  there  is  little  excuse  for  this  neglect. 

As  one  leaves  the  Connecticut  shore  at  New  Haven  or 
Bridgeport,  he  may  have  the  feeling  that  he  is  putting  out 
to  sea,  for  the  sound  is  a  large  body  of  water.  But  soon 
he  begins  to  notice  that  he  is  passing  many  odd-looking 
buoys.  Before  long  it  becomes  evident  that  these  are 
not  stationed  for  the  purpose  of  marking  navigation 
channels,  for  they  are  too  numerous,  and  as  he  looks 
about,  he  observes  that  the  water  is  covered  with  them 
in  every  direction  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach. 

Almost  all  the  way  to  New  York  the  vessel  plows 
along  among  cultivated  fields,  the  presence  of  which 
would  be  unknown  except  for  these  boundary  marks. 
When  their  significance  is  understood,  one  soon  obtains 
a  definite  impression  of  the  great  extent  of  the  oyster 
farms  that  have  been  constructed  in  these  waste  places. 
It  is  difficult,  however,  to  realize  that  here  also,  as  on 


198  Our  Food  Mollusks 

the  land,  there  has  been  a  preparation  of  the  ground,  a 
sowing  of  seed,  and  a  cultivation  in  preparation  for  a 
harvest.  The  impression  is  strong  that  there  can  be 
little  depth  of  water  over  these  farms,  and  that  naviga- 
tion here  by  large  steamers  would  be  perilous,  but  the 
largest  of  vessels  might  pass  safely  over  much  of  the 
field. 

Naturally,  oyster  farmers  first  chose  their  fields  near 
the  shore,  where  the  majority  of  the  natural  beds  had 
existed.  When  these  were  all  occupied,  they  ventured 
farther  into  the  sound.  To-day  one  sees  from  the  steam- 
er's deck  that  some  of  the  oyster  grounds  have  been  ex- 
tended to  the  middle  of  the  sound,  or  to  the  boundary 
line  between  Connecticut  and  New  York.  Some  of  these 
are  more  than  six  miles  from  shore. 

Perhaps  the  thing  that  most  astonishes  one  is  the  in- 
formation he  obtains  concerning  the  depth  of  water  over 
many  of  these  cultivated  acres.  Only  a  few  years  ago, 
no  one  would  have  supposed  it  possible  that  oysters  ever 
could  be  taken  economically  from  a  depth  of  more  than 
seven  or  eight  fathoms,  yet  to-day,  in  some  places,  they 
are  planted  in  and  readily  removed  from  bottoms  cov- 
ered by  a  hundred  feet  of  water.  Such  a  depth,  it  is 
true,  is  exceptionally  great,  but  it  is  hardly  less  wonder- 
ful that  a  very  large  part  of  the  planted  area  in  the 
sound  is  seventy  or  eighty  feet  in  depth.  The  great 
majority  of  the  beds  are  under  water  from  twenty  to 
eighty  feet.  It  may  even  be  surprising  to  learn  that  the 
shore-loving,  brackish  water  oyster  can  exist  at  all  at  so 
great  a  depth  as  a  hundred  feet.  The  fact,  however,  is 
that  it  has  been  taken  from  a  natural  "  rock  "  in  Dela- 
ware Bay  at  a  depth  of  more  than  five  hundred  feet. 

The   achievements   of   the  deep-water   culturist,   that 


Conditions  in  the  Northern  Field        199 

seem  not  to  be  generally  appreciated,  are  made  possible 
by  the  recent  development  of  mammoth  steam  dredging 
vessels.  The  finest  of  the  fleet  of  the  eighties,  housed 
over,  operating  four  steam  dredges,  and  having  a  daily 
capacity  of  five  hundred  bushels,  could  almost  be  carried 
on  the  deck  of  some  of  the  vessels  now  owned  by  the 
same  company.  Figure  37  gives  a  view  of  one  of  these 
powerful  ice-breaking  boats.  It  steams  out  regularly 
to  distant  farms,  perhaps  in  Narragansett  Bay  or  eastern 
Long  Island,  where  its  owner  has  leased  bottoms,  and 
neither  weather  nor  ice  fields  seriously  interfere.  In  one 
day  it  is  able  to  dredge  eight  thousand  five  hundred  bush- 
els of  oysters  in  forty  feet  of  water,  and  during  the  next 
it  can,  from  the  most  distant  point,  deliver  the  cargo  at 
its  owner's  packing  establishment  at  New  Haven. 

One  may  imagine  the  nature  of  the  protest  that  would 
come  from  the  Chesapeake  oysterman  if  a  few  vessels 
of  this  sort  were  suddenly  to  appear  on  his  own  oyster 
territory.  He  would  expect  his  Maryland  rocks  to  melt 
like  snow  in  April,  and  his  expectation  would  be  realized. 
Yet  he  boasts  that  the  immense  reaches  of  Chesapeake 
Bay  comprise  the  greatest  oyster  field  in  the  world; 
and  undoubtedly  he  is  right.  How,  then,  is  it  possible 
for  vessels  of  this  sort  to  operate  in  so  small  a  body  as 
Long  Island  Sound,  where  natural  conditions  for  oyster 
growth  are  so  much  less  favorable,  without  destroying 
the  industry?  Here  they  are  busily  occupied  from  fall 
until  summer  in  taking  immense  cargoes  from  the  bot- 
tom, and  yet  the  industry  actually  increases  from  year  to 
year.  This  forest  of  buoys  explains  the  matter,  for 
among  them  during  the  remainder  of  the  year  these  ves- 
sels and  many  smaller  ones  are  engaged  in  sowing  a 
distant  harvest.  The  future,  will  perhaps  see  a  similar 


2OO  Our  Food  Mollusks 

fleet  in  the  Chesapeake  that  will  bear  to  market  cargoes 
of  which  the  oystermen  of  the  present  do  not  dream. 

One  notices,  on  passing  up  and  down  the  sound,  that 
oyster  beds  are  more  numerous  at  its  western  end.  East- 
ward there  are  not  so  many  planted  areas,  though  in  time, 
trial  may  prove  much  of  this  barren  region  to  be  suitable 
for  oyster  culture.  One  to  whom  figures  have  some  sig- 
nificance would  be  interested  to  know  that  besides  the 
shore,  which  is  still  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  towns, 
there  are  seventy  thousand  acres  of  bottom  under  cultiva- 
tion in  Connecticut,  and  that  in  order  to  carry  on  the 
work,  there  is  employed  a  fleet  of  more  than  one  hun- 
dred steam  vessels,  aided  by  nearly  four  hundred  sailing 
craft. 

In  New  York,  including  Long  Island,  the  cultivated 
area  is  nearly  half  that  of  Connecticut,  and  there  are  still 
large  barren  tracts  that  may  prove  to  be  of  value  to 
oyster  culture.  Here,  as  in  Connecticut,  most  of  the  bot- 
toms are  owned  by  individuals  or  companies. 

Parts  of  Narragansett  Bay  in  Rhode  Island,  have 
long  proved  to  be  valuable  planting  grounds,  and  there 
all  bottoms  are  rented  by  the  state.  Bottoms  less  than 
twelve  feet  in  depth  are  reserved  for  residents  only  at  an 
annual  rental  of  ten  dollars.  Deeper  bottoms  are  rented 
for  five  dollars  to  non-residents,  as  well  as  to  residents,  of 
the  state.  By  this  plan,  thirteen  thousand  acres  now 
bring  an  annual  revenue  of  ninety  thousand  dollars  to 
the  state  treasury. 

While  in  each  of  these  states  the  cultivated  area  will 
be  enlarged,  no  one  can  estimate  its  possible  future  ex- 
tent within  narrow  limits;  but  at  the  present  rate  of  ex- 
pansion, these  limits,  whatever  they  may  be,  will  soon  be 
reached. 


Conditions  in  the  Northern  Field        201 

An  important  question  arises  in  the  mind  as  one  views 
the  field  of  this  industry  that  has  become  so  extensive. 
Are  these  cultivated  acres  owned  by  many  as  on  the  land  ? 
or  have  the  smaller  holdings  been  merged  into  large  ones  ? 
Is  the  business  of  such  a  nature  that  the  modern  in- 
dustrial method  of  combination  may  be  profitable  to  it? 
A  citizen  of  Maryland  or  Louisiana,  where  the  fear  of 
an  oyster  monopoly  has  been  a  consuming  one,  might 
be  interested  in  the  answer. 

There  has  been  a  merging  of  holdings,  and  on  a  large 
scale,  over  the  entire  northern  field.  In  Connecticut,  for 
example,  338  persons  owned  68,000  acres  of  oyster  land 
outside  the  town  districts  in  1893.  Eleven  years  later, 
in  1904,  the  area  had  decreased  somewhat,  being  66,000 
acres.  It  was  owned  by  180  individuals  and  companies. 
The  number  of  owners  had  thus  decreased  nearly  one- 
half.  It  is  now  somewhat  smaller  than  in  1904,  and 
the  number  of  acres  is  larger.  Some  of  these  companies 
hold  very  large  tracts,  owning  and  leasing  bottoms  in 
more  than  one  state.  One,  for  example,  controls  13,000 
acres  in  Connecticut,  5,000  in  New  York,  and  more  than 
4,000  in  Rhode  Island — a  total  of  more  than  22,000 
acres.  This  being  true,  it  may  appear  that  the  northern 
oyster  field  is  perhaps  already  in  the  hands  of  a  few 
great  corporations,  and  that  the  poor  man  can  have  little 
part  in  the  industry  except  as  an  employee. 

But  this  is  not  the  whole  truth.  There  is  another  fact 
that  completely  reverses  such  a  conclusion.  Not  only 
are  there  a  great  number  of  small  holdings  within  the 
limits  of  towns,  but  even  in  the  sound,  more  than  one- 
sixth  of  the  holdings  are  of  less  than  fifteen  acres — some 
of  them  but  two  or  three  acres — and  they  are  owned  and 
planted  by  "  the  poor  man,"  who  conducts  his  business 


2O2  Our  Food  Mollusks 

in  perfect  independence  and  security  by  the  side  of  his 
powerful  neighbor.  If  he  is  thrifty  and  understands  his 
business,  he  makes  it  a  success.  He  does  not  owe  his  ex- 
istence as  a  small  culturist  to  the  benevolence  of  the  large 
corporation,  but  to  wise  laws,  and  to  the  nature  of  the 
industry  itself,  which  is  so  extensive  on  the  Atlantic  and 
Gulf  coasts  that  a  crushing  oyster  monopoly  is  an  im- 
possibility, and  probably  always  will  be. 

When,  from  personal  observation,  one  has  gained 
some  conception  of  the  great  extent  of  the  cultivated 
areas  in  the  northern  field,  he  is  lost  in  wonder  that  seed 
could  be  found  sufficient  for  its  sowing.  But  it  must  be 
remembered  that  three,  four,  and  sometimes  five  years 
are  necessary  for  the  maturing  of  the  crop,  so  that  it  is 
not  necessary  to  seed  the  entire  area  each  year.  The 
method  of  capturing  the  spat  has  already  been  described. 
A  large  corporation  may  secure  its  young  oysters  both  on 
its  deep  water  farms  and  on  its  property  near  shore,  but 
most  of  it  is  taken  on  the  comparatively  shallow  areas. 

While  Connecticut  culturists  have  heretofore  supplied 
almost  the  entire  field,  Rhode  Island  planters  are  now 
beginning  to  discover  that,  even  with  the  high  rental  they 
must  pay,  the  planting  of  shells  for  a  set  of  young  is 
profitable.  Since  1903  seed  collecting  has  become  an 
important  factor  of  the  industry  in  Narragansett  Bay. 

Thus  the  sound  and  the  bays  in  the  northern  field  have 
become  centers  of  great  activity.  During  the  summer 
large  fleets  are  engaged  in  the  planting  of  breeding 
oysters  and  shells  or  crushed  rock  for  the  collection  of 
spat,  in  cleaning  bottoms  or  hardening  them  with  sand 
and  gravel,  in  dredging,  culling,  and  transplanting  oysters 
to  growing  or  conditioning  grounds,  and  in  dragging 
mops  for  the  capture  of  starfish.  In  the  winter  all  are 


Conditions  in  the  Northern  Field        203 

busy  in  dredging  and  carrying  oysters  to  the  shucking 
houses  and  shipping  centers. 

There  are  several  large  markets  and  distributing  cen- 
ters in  the  northern  field.  Chief  among  these  are  New 
Haven  and  New  York.  In  the  former  city  are  the 
establishments  of  fifty  dealers,  who  together  own  thirty 
thousand  acres  of  planted  ground  in  the  state  of  Con- 
necticut, and  control  an  area  equally  great  in  Rhode 
.Island  and  New  York. 

Many  oysters  fresh  from  the  water  are  shipped  un- 
opened to  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  The 
greater  number  are  opened  at  the  packing  houses.  Some 
of  the  larger  companies  are  able  to  ship  nearly  a  thou- 
sand gallons  of  "  meats  "  in  a  day.  These  are  washed, 
cooled,  and  sent  out  in  barrels  or  tubs  in  a  perfectly 
fresh  condition. 

Packers  have  learned  that  their  business  depends 
largely  on  extreme  cleanliness.  Dirty  receptacles  used 
in  preparing  or  shipping  oysters  make  certain  their 
early  loss.  Consequently  barrels,  tubs,  or  pails  returned 
to  the  dealers  are  most  thoroughly  cleaned  and  coated 
inside  with  a  water-proof  preparation  that  of  itself  does 
much  to  insure  cleanliness. 

New  York  City,  also,  is  a  large  distributing  point, 
and  the  West  Washington  market,  on  the  Hudson  River, 
has  become  its  center.  It  is  thus  described  by  one  of  the 
state  Oyster  Commissioners : — "  On  the  river  side  of 
the  market  there  is  an  enclosed  basin  where  boats  may 
be  secure  while  unloading  their  cargoes  of  shell-fish. 
The  unique  and  commodious  house-boats  which  are 
moored  to  the  docks  are  picturesque  objects,  quite 
familiar  to  residents  of  the  city.  These  barges  are  really 
two-story  houses,  built  upon  scows  or  floats  with  ex- 


204  Our  Food  Mollusks 

tensive  expanses  of  floors  or  decks  upon  which  large 
quantities  of  stock  may  be  stored,  assorted,  opened,  and 
shipped.  The  ends  of  these  houses  fronting  the  street 
may  properly,  perhaps,  be  called  bows,  and  are  con- 
structed with  more  or  less  attention  to  architectural  ef- 
fect, so  that  the  fagades  are  not  unattractive.  Upon  the 
top,  or  cornice,  of  each  boat,  usually  extending  across 
the  entire  front  of  the  structure,  is  the  sign  of  the  firm 
doing  business  within.  These  boats  are  fixed  with  more 
or  less  permanency  in  their  berths,  and  have  every  ap- 
pearance of  busy  establishments  of  trade.  They  rise 
and  fall  with  the  tides,  which  keep  them  on  a  level  cor- 
responding with  that  of  the  decks  of  the  boats  of  the 
oyster-carrying  fleet,  thus  facilitating  the  loading  and 
unloading  of  stock.  These  houses  may  be  moved  from 
place  to  place,  when  necessary,  by  tow  boats." 

Philadelphia,  being  situated  on  the  Delaware  River, 
is  the  chief  market  for  the  product  of  Delaware  Bay. 
Many  of  the  oysters  from  the  New  Jersey  bays  are  sent 
to  New  York. 

In  New  Jersey  there  are  three  separate  oyster  regions 
The  most  northern,  Raritan  Bay,  is  really  a  part  of  New 
York  Bay,  and  the  industry  there  is  much  like  that  of 
other  parts  of  that  body  of  water.  On  the  ocean  side  of 
the  state,  Barnegat  Bay  lies  parallel  with  the  shore  like  a 
river  separated  from  the  open  water  only  by  a  low  ridge 
of  sand.  Its  waters  are  brackish,  and  support  a  large 
number  of  oyster  beds.  The  third  oyster  district  is  the 
eastern  shore  of  Delaware  Bay.  This  body  of  water, 
some  thirty  miles  wide  at  its  lower  end,  has  always  pro- 
duced many  oysters,  and  planted  beds  may  be  found  cov- 
ering large  areas  both  on  the  New  Jersey  and  Delaware 
shores. 


Conditions  in  the  Northern  Field        205 

Seed  for  these  beds  was  formerly  brought  from  the 
Chesapeake,  but  in  recent  years,  oystermen  have  fol- 
lowed the  example  of  Connecticut  culturists,  and  now 
produce  much  of  their  own  stock  for  planting.  Some 
planters,  however,  still  depend  largely  on  the  natural  beds 
for  their  supply. 

Thus  during  the  past  few  years  a  great  industry  has 
been  developed  on  the  barren  bottoms  of  these  northern 
bays.  Each  year  it  contributes  many  millions  of  dol- 
lars to  the  wealth  of  the  states  that  have  fostered  it. 
But  its  benefits  are  not  confined  to  one  region.  Its  meth- 
ods, and  the  vexed  experiences  of  its  development  may 
be  avoided  in  other  regions  where  an  industry  has  yet  to 
be  established.  The  more  serious  problems  have  been 
solved  by  the  northern  culturist. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
THE  CHESAPEAKE 

VERY  one  is  familiar  with  the  frequently  re- 
peated statement  that  Chesapeake  Bay  is  the 
most  extensive  and  prolific  oyster  territory 
in  the  world.  The  statement  is  undoubtedly 
true.  When  one  compares  it  with  the  northern  field, 
the  marvel  of  its  natural  fertility  is  astonishing.  The 
colonists  of  New  Amsterdam  left  many  enthusiastic  ac- 
counts of  vast  stores  of  "  brave  oysters  "  that  Providence 
had  provided  for  them  in  their  new  home.  "  The  oyster 
bankes,"  it  was  written  by  a  New  England  colonist,  "  do 
barre  out  the  bigger  ships."  And  yet  even  in  early 
colonial  times,  these  natural  beds  became  so  im- 
poverished that  laws  were  formulated  to  prevent 
their  entire  annihilation.  In  the  beginning,  oysters 
became  an  important  article  of  food  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Maryland  and  Virginia  also.  As  population  increased, 
greater  and  still  greater  numbers  were  removed  from 
the  waters  of  the  Chesapeake.  Inland  towns  began  to 
be  supplied.  Oysters  were  transported  by  wagon,  as 
roads  extended  into  the  interior.  Finally,  when  rail- 
roads began  to  lead  northward,  and  westward  across 
the  Alleghany  Mountains,  the  ever  increasing  supply  of 
oysters  found  a  market  in  the  rapidly  growing  territory 
far  from  the  coast.  Decade  after  decade  passed,  millions 
of  bushels  finally  being  marketed  every  year,  and  now, 

206 


The  Chesapeake 


207 


after  almost  three  centuries  of  tonging  and  scraping  and 
dredging,  the  wonderful  natural  beds  of  the  Chesapeake, 
though  sadly  depleted,  still  exist,  and  still  supply  the 
greater  number  of  the  oysters  marketed  from  the  bay. 

Lying  within  the  boundaries  of  Maryland  and  Vir- 
ginia, the  Chesapeake  has  a  length  of  nearly  two  hun- 
dred miles.  In  Maryland  it  is,  roughly,  from  five  to 


208  Our  Food  Mollusks 

ten  miles  wide,  and,  in  Virginia,  its  shores  are  from  fif- 
teen to  thirty  miles  apart.  The  shore  line  is  everywhere 
very  irregular,  with  extensive  bays,  and  entering  from 
the  west  are  wide  rivers  like  the  Patuxent,  Potomac,  Rap- 
phannock,  and  James,  the  mouths  of  which  are  brackish 
water  estuaries,  most  favorable  for  oyster  growth. 

In  no  body  of  water  would  necessary  conditions  for 
oyster  growth  be  present  everywhere  on  the  bottom.  It 
has  already  been  shown  that  the  requirements  are  many 
and  exact.  Even  the  most  skilful  culturist  cannot  make 
it  possible  for  oysters  to  grow  everywhere  in  the  Chesa- 
peake; but  the  relative  amount  of  favorable  bottom  as 
compared  with  that  of  other  oyster  fields,  where  oyster 
culture  has  been  practised,  is  very  large.  If  intensive 
and  scientific  oyster  culture  were  employed  here,  as  it  is 
in  Long  Island  Sound,  the  result  would  astonish  the 
world. 

Only  a  very  fragmentary  record  of  the  early  industry 
in  this  bay  has  been  kept.  The  importance  of  so  great 
a  natural  source  of  wealth  has  been  recognized,  and  the 
legislative  bodies  of  Maryland  and  Virginia  have  formu- 
lated and  revised  numerous  oyster  laws;  but  until  com- 
paratively recent  times,  it  has  apparently  been  deemed 
unnecessary  to  record  information  on  any  phase  of  the 
business.  Indeed,  no  one  seems  to  have  been  particularly 
interested  in  the  biological  conditions  in  the  bay,  or  in 
more  than  his  own  part  in  the  industry. 

Following  the  method  of  the  archeologist,  which  is  al- 
most the  only  one  available  for  gaining  information  on 
the  industry  before  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
we  are  able  to  obtain  a  vague  idea  of  the  proportions  of 
the  oyster  trade  in  the  indefinite  past  from  the  fact  that 
accumulated  shells  were  used  at  an  early  period  not  only 


The  Chesapeake  209 

in  supplying  lime  for  building  and  for  the  construction  of 
beautiful  shell  roads,  but,  in  some  cases,  to  build  the  very 
foundations  of  towns  from  the  bottom  of  the  bay. 

It  is  true  that  Maryland,  in  1882,  appointed  a  com- 
mission to  inquire  into  the  condition  of  the  industry  in 
her  waters — providing  it  with  no  means  for  making  a 
survey,  and  paying  no  attention  whatever  to  the  valuable 
report  returned  by  it.  Since  that  period  the  main  facts 
concerning  the  industry  have  been  recorded. 

During  the  first  quarter  of  the  last  century  there  seems 
to  have  been  a  brisk  local  trade  in  the  opening  and  sale 
of  oysters  in  cities  and  towns  near  the  bay.  But  in  this 
early  time  began  the  shipping  of  oysters  to  the  northern 
field  for  planting  and  for  opening.  It  has  already  been 
stated  that  this  trade  increased  in  magnitude  until 
checked  by  the  Civil  War.  Out  of  it  grew  the  present 
packing  business  of  the  Chesapeake,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing manner  : — A  few  .  far-seeing  and  energetic  oyster 
culturists  of  Connecticut,  recognizing  the  great  natural 
resources  of  the  bay,  and  the  possibilities  of  a  market 
with  Baltimore  as  a  center,  established  branch  packing 
houses  in  that  city  in  1834.  These  pioneers  of  the  mod- 
ern business,  with  characteristic  energy,  began  to  estab- 
lish wagon  lines  for  the  distribution  of  their  product, 
extending  them  as  far  west  as  Pittsburgh.  With  the 
construction  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  and  other  rail- 
roads, this  distribution  was  enormously  facilitated, 
joysters  were  plentiful,  and  these  firms  conducted  a  great 
business. 

Writing  of  the  establishment  of  the  first  packing 
houses,  Mr.  Ingersoll,  who  had  collected  all  available 
data  for  his  census  report  of  1880,  continues: — "  A  few 
years  later,  Mr.  A.  Field,  also  a  native  of  Connecticut, 


2io  Our  Food  Mollusks 

began  to  sell  oysters,  which  he  first  steamed  and  then 
hermetically  sealed  in  tin  cans.  This  preparation  was 
received  with  favor,  and  the  new  trade  grew  very  rap- 
idly. Records  furnished  by  C.  S.  Maltby  inform  ns 
that  in  1865  1,875,000  bushels  of  oysters  were  packed 
raw  in  Baltimore,  and  1,360,000  bushels  were  preserved. 
In  1869  he  numbers  in  Maryland  55  packers,  who,  at  500 
to  2,500  cans  per  day,  put  up  12,000,000  to  15,000,000 
cans  in  a  season  of  seven  months,  using  5,000,000  bush- 
els. Sixty  '  raw '  houses  that  year  employed  3,000 
hands,  while  the  packers  gave  employment  to  7,000  per- 
sons. Large  quantities  of  canned  oysters  were  annually 
sent,  at  that  time,  by  steamship  to  Havana." 

Mr.  Richard  Edmonds,  describing  the  industry  of  the 
same  period,  wrote  in  regard  to  it : — "  The  raw-oyster 
business  has  always  been  more  profitable  and  less  subject 
to  the  vicissitudes  of  trade,  although  there  are  many 
losses  from  spoilt  oysters  when  the  weather  happens  to 
turn  suddenly  warm.  Raw  oysters,  after  being  opened, 
are  packed  in  small,  air-tight  cans  holding  about  a  quart, 
and  these  are  arranged  in  rows  in  a  long  wooden  box, 
with  a  block  of  ice  between  each  row,  or  they  are  emptied 
into  a  keg,  half -barrel,  or  barrel  made  for  this  purpose. 
When  the  latter  plan  is  pursued,  the  keg  or  barrel  is  filled 
to  about  five-sixths  of  its  capacity,  and  then  a  large  piece 
of  ice  is  thrown  in,  after  which  the  top  is  fastened  on  as 
closely  as  possible,  and  it  is  at  once  shipped  to  the  West, 
usually  by  special  oyster  trains  or  by  express.  Packed 
in  this  way,  with  moderately  cold  weather,  the  oysters 
will  keep  very  well  for  a  week  or  ten  days.  During  the 
most  active  part  of  the  '  raw  '  season,  there  are  daily 
oyster  trains  of  from  thirty  to  forty  cars  from  Baltimore 
to  the  West,  where  nearly  all  the  Baltimore  oysters  are 


The  Chesapeake  211 

consumed.  From  the  shores  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay  as 
far  as  Detroit  there  is  scarcely  a  city  or  town  (connected 
with  any  of  the  great  trunk  lines)  which  is  not  supplied 
with  Maryland  raw  oysters.  Farther  west,  and  to  a 
considerable  extent  in  European  countries,  the  demand 
is  supplied  by  steamed  oysters.  The  oysters  used  in  the 
raw  trade  are  of  a  finer  quality,  and  consequently  com- 
mand better  prices  than  steamed." 

When  this  was  written,  there  were  forty-five  packing 
houses  in  the  city  of  Baltimore.  During  the  winter  of 
1879-80,  these  firms  marketed  more  than  seven  million 
bushels  of  oysters,  the  production  of  other  firms  in  the 
state  raising  the  total  to  ten  million  bushels. 

The  packing  business  of  Virginia  began  very  much 
later  than  that  of  Maryland.  It  was  not  until  1859  that 
an  establishment  was  founded  in  the  city  of  Norfolk. 
The  time  and  place,  however,  were  unfortunate  for  the 
new  venture,  for  shortly  the  war  began  that  paralyzed 
every  industry,  transformed  a  garden  state  into  a  wilder- 
ness, and  covered  its  waters  with  hostile  fleets. 

No  one  but  a  Virginian  knows  how  the  state  suffered 
in  that  conflict,  though  it  is  mournful  enough  to  an  out- 
sider even  to-day  to  see  so  much  of  its  formerly  fertile 
interior  grown  over  with  jack  pine  and  broom  straw, 
worn  out  because  of  the  poverty  of  its  owners,  or  gullied 
beyond  repair.  But  one  very  important  source  of  rev- 
enue remained  after  the  conflict.  The  natural  oyster 
beds  that  had  for  many  years  suffered  from  excessive 
tonging,  had  been  resting  for  four  years,  and  were  now 
densely  packed.  Prices  were  high,  and  a  great  many  per- 
sons now  engaged  in  the  tonging  of  oysters. 

Immediately  on  the  cessation  of  hostilities,  packing 
houses  began  operations  in  Norfolk,  and  the  industry  in- 


212  Our  Food  Mollusks 

creased  for  several  years.  Very  few  oysters  have  ever 
been  canned  in  Virginia.  The  early  trade,  like  that  of 
to-day,  was  largely  in  opened  oysters  that  were  sent 
north  in  a  fresh  condition,  where  they  were  usually  sold 
as  northern  stock.  In  1880  the  state  produced  nearly 
seven  million  bushels,  and  more  than  sixteen  thousand 
persons  were  engaged  in  the  industry. 

There  seem  to  be  no  definite  data  bearing  on  the  pro- 
duction of  the  entire  bay  before  the  year  1880.  The 
notes  of  one  Baltimore  packer  estimate  the  total  produc- 
tion of  the  bay  at  6,944,500  bushels  in  1865,  of  which 
Maryland  produced  4,879,500,  and  Virginia  2,065,000 
bushels.  It  is  stated  by  Professor  Brooks  that  in  1875 
the  bay  produced  17,000,000  bushels.  The  census  esti- 
mate for  1880  was  slightly  more  than  that.  Professor 
Brooks  believed  that  the  average  for  fifty-six  years  fol- 
lowing the  establishment  of  the  packing  industry  in  Bal- 
timore, was  at  least  7,000,000  bushels  a  year,  or,  during 
the  period  of  little  more  than  half  a  century,  a  total  of 
392,000,000  bushels.  This  is  an  enormous  production, 
and  all  the  more  wonderful  because  the  greater  part  of 
it  was  from  natural  beds. 

But  high  tide  in  the  Chesapeake  industry  was  reached 
soon  after  the  formulation  of  the  tenth  census  estimate 
in  1880.  On  account  of  the  continued  fertility  of  the 
waters  decade  after  decade,  the  inhabitants  of  Maryland 
and  Virginia  seemed  to  have  become  convinced  that  they 
were  inexhaustible.  Some,  however,  were  able  to  see 
that  a  continuation  of  dredging,  as  it  had  always  been 
carried  on,  would  eventually  bring  destruction  to  the 
natural  beds.  Influenced  by  those  who  had  this  belief, 
the  Governor  of  Maryland  in  1882  requested  the  late 
Professor  W.  K.  Brooks  of  Johns  Hopkins  University 


The  Chesapeake  213 

in  Baltimore,  a  naturalist  of  world-wide  reputation,  to 
accept  the  position  of  chairman  of  a  commission  to  ex- 
amine and  report  on  the  condition  of  the  natural  beds  in 
the  Chesapeake,  and  to  suggest  measures  needed  for  their 
protection  or  improvement.  Professor  Brooks  had  al- 
ready, in  1878,  completed  an  important  biological  study 
of  the  American  oyster.  By  a  long-continued  observa- 
tion of  the  animal  in  its  natural  state,  he  had  become 
thoroughly  acquainted  with  its  needs  and  with  the  nature 
of  its  surroundings.  No  other  person  was  so  well  fitted 
for  the  task,  which  he  accepted,  and  for  which  the  uni- 
versity gave  him  leave  of  absence. 

In  1884  he  published  an  exhaustive  report,  in  which 
he  showed  that,  with  the  methods  then  employed  in  gath- 
ering oysters,  the  Chesapeake  industry  must  decline,  and 
eventually  cease  to  exist.  He  used  the  historical  and 
biological  arguments  with  such  skill  and  force  that  it 
seems  impossible  that  an  intelligent  person  could  have 
followed  them  without  conviction.  The  report  attracted 
the  most  respectful  attention  of  many  citizens,  but  had 
no  effect  on  those  directly  engaged  in  the  industry,  and 
they  held  the  balance  of  political  power  in  Maryland. 

In  1891  Professor  Brooks  published  an  interesting 
and  less  technical  account  of  the  natural  resources  of 
Chesapeake  Bay  in  a  book  that  deserved  wide  popular  in- 
terest. Even  at  that  time  nothing  had  been  done  in 
Maryland  to  promote  oyster  culture,  and  the  natural  re- 
sources were  very  rapidly  declining.  Fifteen  years  more 
passed  before  the  state  saw  that  the  vast  wealth  of  its 
waters  had  dwindled  dangerously  near  to  the  vanishing- 
point.  Then,  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century  after  this 
condition  had  been  shown  to  be  inevitable,  it  was  com- 
pelled to  listen  to  reason,  and,  in  1906,  made  an  attempt 


214  Our  Food  Mollusks 

— not  a  thorough-going  one,  by  any  means — at  reform. 
"  A  prophet  is  not  without  honor,  but  in  his  own  coun- 
try, and  among  his  own  kin,  and  in  his  own  house." 

The  record  of  the  decline  in  the  Chesapeake  since  1885 
is  very  incomplete,  but  that  kept  by  the  transportation 
companies  and  the  packing  houses  of  Baltimore  indicates 
its  nature.  During  the  season  of  1885-6  more  than  three 
and  a  half  million  bushels  of  oysters  were  shucked  in  the 
city  of  Baltimore.  In  1889-90  the  number  had  fallen 
below  two  and  a  half  millions.  In  1893-4  it  had  de- 
clined to  a  little  more  than  one  and  a  half  millions.  For 
the  next  four  years  it  remained  nearly  the  same,  and 
hopes  began  to  be  entertained  that  the  low  mark  had  been 
reached,  and  that  the  natural  beds  of  the  Chesapeake 
would  continue  to  yield  a  harvest  of  at  least  that  amount. 
But  in  1899-1900  the  supply  hardly  exceeded  a  million 
bushels,  and  the  following  season  fell  below  the  million 
mark.  Since  then  the  same  steady  decrease  has  been 
maintained,  if  more  slowly,  yet  none  the  less  certainly. 

This  falling  off  in  the  business  of  the  packers  was  not 
due  to  any  increase  in  what  is  called  the  shell  trade, 
or  to  the  establishment  of  new  packing  houses  elsewhere, 
but  simply  to  the  fact  that  the  natural  supply  of  the  bay 
was  nearly  exhausted.  It  was  stated  by  the  railroad 
companies  that  during  the  decade  between  1890  and 
1900,  the  shipments  of  oysters  in  the  shell  had  decreased 
three-fourths  in  volume. 

But  the  decline  was  even  more  rapid  than  indicated  by 
these  figures,  for  in  1889  the  Baltimore  packers  began 
to  send  dredging  vessels  down  the  coast  to  Pamlico 
Sound  in  North  Carolina,  where  they  taught  the  un- 
sophisticated native  oystermen  something  about  the 
dredging  of  oysters,  and  incidentally  nearly  ruined  the 


The  Chesapeake  215 

natural  resources  of  the  sound  in  short  order.  Oysters 
dredged  there  were  all  taken  to  the  packing  houses  in 
Baltimore,  where  they  were  shucked,  sold,  and 
counted  in  the  fragmentary  records  of  the  business  as 
Chesapeake  oysters.  Thus  the  prophecy  of  the  commis- 
sion of  1882  was  fulfilled.  Its  report  was  not  merely  a 
warning.  It  showed  the  decline  in  the  great  industry  to 
be  unnecessary.  It  explained  the  simple  course  to  be 
pursued  that  would  increase  the  production  of  oysters  to 
a  vast  extent;  and  there  is  even  more  reason  to-day  than 
there  was  in  1884  for  the  belief  that  every  prediction  of 
vast  success  and  fortune  contained  in  it  might  by  this 
time  have  been  realized  by  the  state  of  Maryland  had 
it  chosen  to  develop  a  thorough-going  system  of  oyster 
culture. 

The  history  of  the  industry  in  Virginia's  part  of  the 
bay  is  not  so  depressing.  Much  of  the  bottom  is  shal- 
low, and  is  worked  by  tongers.  In  1879  dredging  on 
natural  oyster  rocks  was  prohibited,  though  allowed  on 
private  grounds.  But  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  only  tongs 
were  employed,  the  natural  beds  rapidly  became  depleted. 
At  this  time  planting  was  allowed  by  the  state,  but  few 
availed  themselves  of  the  privilege.  Naturally,  planting 
could  not  well  flourish  when  there  was  great  doubt  as  to 
the  limits  of  natural  rocks  as  distinguished  from  barren 
bottoms.  Planting  had  also  been  allowed  in  Maryland 
for  many  years,  but  very  few  had  dared  to  invest  labor 
and  money  in  it. 

In  1892  a  survey  of  the  natural  oyster  beds  was  made 
in  Virginia.  These  were  staked  out,  and  though  their 
boundary  marks  have  long  since  disappeared,  the  good 
effects  of  that  designation  have  been  felt  ever  since.  If 
a  triangulation  survey  of  the  barren  bottoms  had  been 


2i6  Our  Food  Mollusks 

made  at  the  same  time,  a  much  greater  stride  in  advance 
would  have  been  taken. 

Maryland  was  still  the  proud  leader  of  all  the  oyster 
producing  states  in  1891.  Ten  years  later  she  had  re- 
linquished this  position  to  Virginia,  from  which  were 
marketed  nearly  eight  million  bushels  in  1901.  Of  these 
more  than  three  million  bushels  came  from  private  beds. 
The  Virginia  oyster  planter  still  has  his  serious  troubles, 
but  the  practice  of  planting  has  become  so  extensive 
that  the  market  does  not  depend  entirely  on  the  natural 
rocks,  and  hence  possesses  much  stability. 

Of  late  years  it  has  everywhere  become  the  habit  to 
refer  to  the  upper  Chesapeake  as  the  dead  goose  that 
laid  the  golden  eggs.  When  modern  oyster  laws  are  be- 
ing demanded  in  other  states,  Maryland  is  exhibited  as 
the  horrible  example  of  the  effects  of  faulty  legislation 
on  the  oyster  industry.  Her  natural  resources  have 
largely  been  wasted,  and  almost  perfect  lawlessness  has 
been  tolerated  on  the  bay. 

No  one  has  ever  supposed  that  the  people  of  Mary- 
land were  peculiarly  indifferent  to  the  destruction  of  the 
natural  treasures  buried  in  her  bay.  They  have  known 
what  they  were  losing,  and  why,  but,  like  the  American 
public  everywhere,  they  were  long-suffering  in  patience. 
An  American  from  any  other  part  of  the  country  knows 
without  being  told  that  such  a  state  of  affairs  is  probably 
to  be  explained  by  what  was  the  fact  in  this  case — that 
the  Maryland  oyster  had  been  deeply  involved  in  politics. 

When  a  sufficient  number  of  persons  become  interested 
in  the  lumbering  of  pine,  spruce,  or  fir,  these  become  fac- 
tors in  state  or  even  national  politics.  The  same  is  true 
of  such  sources  of  natural  wealth  as  metals,  coal,  petro- 
leum, and  many  others.  This  happens  because  those 


The  Chesapeake  217 

who  are  most  directly  interested  desire  all  that  may  be 
obtained,  and  in  getting  what  they  can  as  rapidly  as  pos- 
sible, usually  waste  much  more  than  they  get.  They 
resent  public  interference,  and,  when  necessary,  pur- 
chase immunity  in  one  way  or  another  of  political  ma- 
chines— an  old  story  the  world  over. 

The  oyster  industry  has  been  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance to  Maryland  and  Virginia.  It  supports  thou- 
sands of  shuckers,  tongers,  and  dredgers.  The  business 
of  the  oyster  dredger  is  to  get  oysters  where  they  grow, 
and  he  has  always  attended  to  it — as  one  writer  has  put 
it,  "  regarding  neither  the  laws  of  God  or  man."  All 
that  he  has  ever  desired  from  the  public  is  to  be  let  alone. 
The  tonger,  for  whom  certain  shallow  waters  have  been 
reserved,  has  asked  nothing  more.  Each  of  these  has 
often  maintained  his  u  natural  rights  "  against  the  other 
by  means  of  rifles,  and  both  have  taught  the  oyster 
planter,  whose  unnatural  business,  it  has  seemed  to  them, 
might  glut  their  markets,  and  whose  unholy  purpose  has 
apparently  been  to  take  the  bread  out  of  the  mouths  of 
the  honest  poor,  that  Maryland,  at  least,  was  no  place  for 
him. 

The  "  rights  "  of  these  men  have  been  looked  after  in 
state  legislatures  by  those  whom  they  have  sent  by  their 
votes,  and  restrictive  laws  have  seldom  been  passed. 
Some  years  ago  the  statement  was  made  in  a  government 
document  that  one  candidate  for  the  Virginia  legislature 
promised  the  oystermen  that,  if  elected,  he  would  defend 
any  of  them  in  the  courts  free  of  charge  should  they 
transgress  any  of  the  state  oyster  laws;  and  every  one 
has  always  believed  the  situation  to  have  been  worse  in 
Maryland  than  in  Virginia. 

Until  1906  the  oyster  laws  of  Maryland  aimed  at  little 


218  Our  Food  Mollusks 

but  the  prevention  of  quarrels  between  tongers  and 
dredgers,  and  the  collection  of  revenue  by  means  of 
licenses.  To  enforce  the  laws,  it  has  been  necessary  to 
support  an  "  oyster  navy."  The  plan  of  collecting  a 
revenue  has  always  been  a  favorite  one.  Just  previous 
to  the  passage  of  the  new  oyster  laws,  the  state  was  able 
to  collect  about  forty  thousand  dollars — at  an  expense  of 
more  than  sixty  thousand.  The  revenue  plan  has  usually 
operated  in  this  way  in  Maryland.  A  law  to  compel 
culling  on  the  beds  where  oysters  were  dredged  has  been 
on  the  statute  books  for  years,  but  it  has  been  observed 
only  when  convenient.  In  short,  such  oyster  laws  as 
Maryland  has  possessed,  have  rarely  been  enforced.  It 
must  be  said,  however,  that  on  so  extensive  an  area  as 
the  Chesapeake,  where  public  sentiment  was  overwhelm- 
ingly against  existing  laws,  their  enforcement  was  prac- 
tically impossible.  It  is  an  interesting  problem  whether 
the  provisions  of  the  new  statutes  can  be  enforced  more 
successfully  than  were  the  old. 

Many  hard  things,  to  be  found  in  newspaper  files, 
magazines,  and  government  reports,  have  been  written  by 
citizens  of  Maryland  and  Virginia  concerning  the  oyster 
pirates  of  the  Chesapeake,  especially  of  their  almost  in- 
credible lawlessness  and  cruelty,  and  hard  as  these  state- 
ments are,  those  who  have  been  at  all  familiar  with  the 
conditions  in  the  bay  in  former  times,  will  probably 
agree  with  the  statement  of  Mr.  Ingersoll,  who  in- 
vestigated the  oyster  industry  previous  to  1880,  that  he 
believed  them  to  be  just. 

Other  states,  in  past  decades,  have  tolerated  politics  as 
bad  as  those  of  Maryland.  There  are  still  localities 
where  even  dynamite  and  the  sawed-off  shotgun  may  be 
used  against  life  with  comparative  impunity;  but  the 


The  Chesapeake  219 

social  conditions  that  obtained  on  the  Chesapeake  for 
many  years  were  so  unique  that  one  is  quite  at  a  loss  to 
understand  how  they  could  have  escaped  the  attention  of 
the  modern  magazine  story  writer.  During  the  quarter 
of  a  century  or  more  since  the  grim  and  grizzled  pioneer 
and  the  polite  but  dreadful  cowboy,  with  his  "  six- 
shooter,"  have  become  extinct,  they  have  been  celebrated 
as  typical  western  characters  in  a  deluge  of  magazine 
literature  by  eastern  writers,  and  the  flood  continues  un- 
abated to  this  day.  The  equally  picturesque  bad  man  in 
their  midst  has  entirely  escaped  attention,  perhaps  be- 
cause he  has  so  recently  been  with  them.  It  remains  for 
some  Pacific  coast  writer,  who  has  never  crossed  the 
Coast  Range,  to  exploit  the  wild  oyster  pirate  of  the 
Chesapeake.  There  will  be  color  for  his  tale  in  the  facts 
when  he  obtains  them,  and  fiction  will  not  be  necessary. 

It  has  been  stated  that  shallow  waters  along  the  shore 
lines  have  long  been  set  apart  by  law  for  tonging,  while 
it  is  intended  that  dredging  shall  be  carried  on  elsewhere 
in  deeper  water.  While  tonging  is  slow  work  that  can 
only  be  carried  on  in  good  weather,  thousands  of  men 
have  been  engaged  in  it. 

One  of  the  functions  of  the  state  police  is  to  prevent 
dredging  on  the  tonging  grounds,  but  the  bay  is  so  ex- 
tensive that  a  very  large  force  would  be  required  to  ac- 
complish it.  With  the  pirates  banded  together  for 
mutual  protection,  and  especially  under  the  cloak  of 
night,  tonging  grounds  may  be  dredged  with  safety  and 
profit  when  they  yield  more  than  those  in  deeper  water. 

Night  dredging  on  forbidden  grounds  has  not  always 
been  necessary.  We  are  told,  for  example,  that  during 
the  winter  of  1879-80  a  large  fleet  of  dredgers  entered 
the  Rappahannock  River  in  Virginia,  and  began  opera- 


22O  Our  Food  Mollusks 

tions  on  the  tonging  grounds.  Incensed  at  this  act,  the 
tongers  made  an  attempt  to  drive  them  off,  but  the 
dredgers  were  well  armed  and  able  rapidly  to  concentrate 
forces  when  necessary.  The  scattered  small  boats  of  the 
tongers  were  driven  to  cover,  and  for  weeks  obliged  to 
keep  at  a  respectful  distance.  The  Virginia  legislature 
being  in  session,  voted  to  supply  the  shore  men  with  a 
cannon  and  small  arms,  but  before  these  arrived,  dredg- 
ing operations  had  been  completed,  and  the  pirate  fleet 
had  sailed  away. 

Tongers  have  always  been  practically  helpless  against 
these  raiders,  but  the  greatest  sufferers  have  been  the  few 
bold  men  who  have  attempted  to  plant  oysters  on  leased 
bottoms  in  Maryland,  or  -in  Virginia,  near  the  Maryland 
line.  Professor  Brooks  records  the  experience  of  a  Vir- 
ginia culturist  who  had  incautiously  leased  about  seventy 
acres  a  short  distance  from  Maryland  waters.  At  the 
expense  of  more  than  four  thousand  dollars,  he  had 
shelled  the  bottom,  obtained  a  large  set  of  young  oysters, 
and  had  employed  watchmen  during  their  growth.  Two 
years  after  the  bottom  was  shelled,  the  crop  was 
estimated  at  three  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  bushels, 
and  valued  at  more  than  one  hundred  and  twenty  thou- 
sand dollars.  The  dredgers  were  perfectly  willing  to 
witness  this  wonderful  demonstration  of  the  fertility  of 
the  bay  under  oyster  culture.  It  proved  to  be  a  fine  har- 
vest for  them.  There  were  no  inter-state  complications, 
like  the  threatened  warfare  between  Louisiana  and  Mis- 
sissippi some  years  ago  over  a  trespass  on  oyster  ground, 
and  there  was  no  redress.  The  culturist  lost  a  fortune, 
and  that  was  the  end  of  the  matter. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  who  these  buccaneers  and 
their  crews  were,  and  what  were  their  relations  to  civ- 


The  Chesapeake  221 

ilized  society.  In  the  denunciatory  accounts  of  them  by 
their  fellow  citizens,  that  one  may  find,  not  all  vessel 
owners  were  attacked.  They  seemed  to  have  had  knowl- 
edge only  of  the  number  of  trips  made  by  their  cap- 
tains. Some  of  the  captains  also  are  said  to  have  been 
honest  and  law-abiding,  "  but  it  is  an  unfortunate  fact," 
we  read,  "  that  such  form  a  very  small  minority." 

It  may  be  gathered  from  the  reports,  that  captains  of 
dredging  vessels  were  forced  by  the  demands  of  vessel 
owners  to  disregard  the  oyster  laws.  They  were  re- 
quired to  deliver  oysters  within  a  limited  time.  That 
meant  that  they  must  take  them  from  the  most  con- 
venient localities,  and  that  they  must  dredge  day  or  night 
in  all  kinds  of  weather.  It  meant  that  crews  were  to 
be  driven  without  mercy,  and  that  no  one  should  be  al- 
lowed to  have  any  rights  in  the  bay.  Such  a  system  re- 
sulted in  the  selection  of  as  merciless  a  band  of  pirates  to 
captain  most  of  the  vessels  of  the  oyster  fleet,  as  ever 
ruled  a  deck  on  the  high  seas. 

The  cruel  treatment  of  crews  on  these  vessels  has  al- 
ways been  a  frequent  subject  of  comment,  and  yet  there 
were  ways  of  getting  them  together.  In  the  majority  of 
cases,  when  a  ship-owner  or  a  captain  desired  a  crew  of 
seven  or  eight  men,  he  simply  placed  an  order  for  them 
with  a  shipping  agent.  This  person,  on  making  a  round 
of  the  saloons  and  dives  near  the  "  basin  "  in  Baltimore, 
was  usually  able  to  round  up  a  sufficient  number  of  men, 
often  irresponsible  from  drink,  and  these  he  delivered 
on  deck  at  about  two  dollars  a  head.  The  only  qualifica- 
tion in  the  acceptance  of  a  hand  was  evident  muscular 
ability — when  muscles  should  be  under  control — to  turn 
the  crank  of  a  windlass.  Crews  of  this  sort — vagrants, 
thieves,  and  murderers — declared  in  an  account  by  a  na- 


222  Our  Food  Mollusks 

tive  of  the  Chesapeake  shore  to  be  "  one  of  the  most  de- 
praved bodies  of  workmen  to  be  found  in  the  country," 
made  good  men  for  the  work  in  hand. 

But  the  worst  feature  of  the  fearful  business  was  the 
virtual  kidnapping  of  newly  arrived  and  ignorant  for- 
eigners for  this  killing  work.  Shipping  agents  were  al- 
lowed to  meet  the  immigrants  in  New  York  and  Phila- 
delphia, and,  with  promises  of  pleasant  and  remunerative 
employment,  lured  them  to  Baltimore  in  large  numbers, 
and  delivered  them  to  dredging  captains.  There  they 
entered  into  an  abject  slavery,  from  which  it  was  not  pos- 
sible to  escape,  at  least  until  the  end  of  the  voyage.  The 
work  was  cruelly  hard,  being  chiefly  at  the  windlasses 
used  in  drawing  the  heavy  dredges,  and  in  culling  the 
loads  that  were  dumped  on  deck.  Winter  on  the  Chesa- 
peake is  cold  and  stormy,  and  the  men  were  compelled  to 
work  on  an  icy  deck  that  was  entirely  exposed  to  wind 
and  spray.  In  1880  the  average  pay  for  this  was  said 
to  be  about  eleven  dollars  a  month. 

Along  the  shore  one  hears  many  gruesome  tales  of 
mysterious  disappearances,  and  even  of  open  murders 
of  members  of  these  crews.  Stories  are  told  of  unspeak- 
able cruelties  on  board  the  vessels,  and  of  the  maroonings 
of  entire  crews  on  isolated  shores,  perhaps  to  save  the 
amount  due  in  wages.  That  such  barbarities  were  prac- 
tised on  the  bay  probably  few  good  citizens  of  Maryland 
doubt,  and  yet  complaints  have  been  rare  and  redresses 
still  less  numerous.  Without  doubt  there  were  some 
humane  captains  among  the  Baltimore  dredgers,  and 
many  such  in  the  lower  part  of  the  state;  but  the  opinion 
of  those  best  acquainted  with  the  conditions  seems  to  be 
that,  as  a  class,  they  have  established  a  record  of  crime 
and  cruelty  that  has  rarely  been  equaled  in  this  country. 


The  Chesapeake  223 

Conditions  governing  the  oyster  industry  in  Virginia 
and  Maryland  are  in  a  state  of  transition  from  depend- 
ence on  the  wild  crop  to  oyster  culture.  A  great  and 
radical  change  is  contemplated  in  the  latter  state,  while 
the  former  is  slowly  continuing  progress  inaugurated 
years  ago. 

There  are  several  reasons  for  the  slow  progress  of 
oyster  culture  in  Virginia.  The  industry  has  reached  that 
stage  where  its  natural  beds  are  as  much  a  curse  as  a 
blessing.  According  to  the  Baylor  survey  of  1892,  these 
beds  covered  an  area  of  two  hundred  and  twenty-six 
thousand  acres.  These  have  dwindled  to  small  propor- 
tions; their  size  cannot  be  accurately  estimated.  Over 
large  areas  oysters  are  scattered,  and  many  of  the  orig- 
inal rocks  are  now  quite  barren.  Yet  nearly  every  one 
clings  desperately  to  the  idea  that  the  future  industry  de- 
pends on  their  preservation  as  natural  beds. 

The  result  is  that  all  the  energies  of  the  state  are  ex- 
pended on  policing  this  territory — in  an  attempt  to  en- 
force the  close-season,  and  to  prevent  the  sale  of  small 
oysters  by  tongers  to  planters — instead  of  affording  some 
protection  to  the  oyster  culturist,  who  is  making  a  seri- 
ous effort  to  succeed.  As  it  is,  the  oyster  "  navy  "  is  too 
small  to  enforce  the  laws  on  a  quarter  of  the  public  ter- 
ritory alone. 

Another  reason  for  slow  development  is  the  absence 
of  a  triangulation  survey  of  barren  bottoms  available  for 
oyster  culture,  and  the  consequent  insecurity  of  title.  The 
oyster  laws  are  so  confused  and  so  conflicting,  contain 
so  many  exceptions  and  special  and  local  provisions,  that 
no  one  has  a  definite  idea  of  his  rights. 

The  state  is  committed  to  the  plan  of  raising  the  great- 
est possible  direct  revenue  from  the  industry,  and  gives 


224  OUF  Food  Mollusks 

practically  no  return  of  any  sort.  This  will  prove  to  be 
a  short-sighted  policy. 

The  fear  of  an  oyster  monopoly  is  very  general  and 
very  acute.  Not  enough  bottom  is  leased  to  one  in- 
dividual to  invite  extensive  oyster  culture,  and  non- 
resident capital  is  not  allowed  to  develop  any  of  the  ex- 
tensive and  barren  areas  in  the  bay.  All  of  the  oyster 
producing  states  have  at  some  time  placed  this  prohibi- 
tion on  the  oyster  industry — but  never  on  one  conducted 
on  dry  land.  It  would  be  interesting  to  know  what  is 
the  economic  principle  involved  in  the  discrimination. 

While  there  is  a  considerable  area  covered  by  planted 
oysters  in  Virginia,  the  chief  source  of  supply  is  still  the 
natural  rocks  or  beds.  Planting  is  not  at  present  in- 
creasing, and  partly  for  the  reason  that  the  business  of 
rearing  seed  for  sale  has  not  yet  been  established.  Plant- 
ing in  the  deeper  parts  of  the  bay  has  not  yet  been  given 
a  fair  trial.  True  oyster  culture — the  capture  of  the 
young  on  collectors  and  its  rearing  for  market — has  been 
tried,  and  with  success,  but  is  not  yet  extensively  prac- 
tised. 

Criticisms  of  the  Virginia  industry  should  lead  no 
one  to  be  pessimistic  concerning  it.  In  actual  production 
the  state  is  one  of  the  great  leaders.  Large  and  flourish- 
ing packing  houses  are  numerous,  and  some  of  the 
brands  marketed  by  them  are  of  the  greatest  excellence. 

Methods  of  state  control,  that  change  only  with  the 
gradual  modification  of  public  opinion,  are  slowly  work- 
ing through  that  series  of  experiments  to  the  conclusions 
that  other  states  have  already  reached.  Communities, 
like  individuals,  seldom  are  benefited  by  the  experiences 
of  other  communities.  But  the  time  probably  will  soon 
come  in  Virginia  when  dependence  will  be  placed  on  a 


The  Chesapeake  225 

cultivated  rather  than  on  a  natural  crop,  and  to  the 
great  benefit  and  satisfaction  of  every  one  concerned. 

Public  attention  is  now  attracted  to  Maryland.  For 
so  long  a  period  the  first  among  the  oyster  producing 
states,  it  was  the  last  to  recognize  the  importance  of 
oyster  culture.  The  reason  for  its  long  delay  is  that  its 
natural  supply  has  been  astonishingly  great,  and  public 
opinion  did  not  force  a  change  in  method  until  these 
natural  oyster  nurseries  were  very  greatly  depleted,  and 
on  the  way  to  early  extinction. 

In  April,  1906,  the  Governor  of  Maryland  signed  an 
act  "  to  establish  and  promote  the  industry  of  oyster 
culture  in  Maryland;  to  define,  survey  and  mark  natural 
oyster  beds,  bars  and  rocks,  to  prescribe  penalties  for  the 
infringement  of  its  provisions,  and  to  establish  a  per- 
manent shell-fish  commission." 

Previously,  an  act  known  as  the  "  five-acre  law  "  al- 
lowed citizens  of  the  state  to  select  a  small  plot  on  bar- 
ren bottoms  for  planting  oysters,  "  twelve  months 
peaceable  possession "  to  constitute  a  sufficient  title 
thereto.  Although  many  such  small  tracts  were  taken 
at  one  time  or  another,  the  bedding  or  culture  of  oysters 
practically  did  not  exist  in  the  waters  of  the  state. 

Among  the  features  of  the  act  of  1906  may  be  noticed 
the  following: — 

No  non-resident,  or  any  corporation  or  joint  stock 
company  will  be  permitted  to  lease  or  acquire  by  assign- 
ment any  lands  for  oyster  planting  or  cultivation. 

All  natural  beds  or  rocks  are  excluded  from  the 
operation  of  the  act. 

A  Shell-fish  Commission  is  created. 

A  triangulation  survey  of  natural  beds  (but  not  of 
bottoms  for  lease)  was  provided  for. 


226  Our  Food  Mollusks 

All  bottoms  not  included  in  natural  beds  were  set  aside 
for  lease. 

Boundaries  of  natural  beds,  as  determined  by  the  Com- 
mission, may  be  decided  by  Judges  of  Circuit  Courts. 

Within  the  territorial  limits  of  any  of  the  counties,  no 
person  shall  lease  or  acquire  more  than  ten  acres.  One 
hundred  acres  may  be  acquired  in  the  bay  outside  county 
lines. 

The  terms  of  lease  are  twenty  years,  rental  being  one 
dollar  an  acre  for  the  first  and  second  years,  two  dollars 
for  the  third,  three  dollars  for  the  fourth,  four  dollars 
for  the  fifth,  and  five  dollars  a  year  for  the  remainder  of 
the  term. 

No  right  is  given  to  redeem  or  purchase  land  so  leased. 

Severe  penalties  are  provided  for  injury  to  state  buoys, 
and  for  the  theft  of  oysters  from  leased  bottoms. 

The  state  fisheries  force  shall  prevent  violations  of  the 
act. 

The  Commission  appointed  by  the  Governor  was  of 
great  efficiency.  One  of  its  members,  a  professional 
biologist  who  had  had  extensive  experience  in  oyster 
work  and  a  complete  knowledge  of  the  entire  subject  of 
oyster  culture,  took  charge  of  the  field  work. 

By  an  act  of  Congress,  it  was  directed  that  members  of 
the  Bureau  of  the  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  and  the 
Bureau  of  Fishes,  should  aid  the  Maryland  Shell-fish 
Commission  in  making  the  survey  of  the  natural  oyster 
beds  in  Maryland.  This  aid  was  promptly  given,  the  ex- 
penses being  met  by  a  special  appropriation  from  the  na- 
tional treasury.  It  is  a  fact  not  generally  noticed,  per- 
haps, that  federal  aid  in  oyster  investigation  and  sur- 
veys, has  frequently  been  extended  to  states,  which,  in 
some  instances,  have  profited  largely  by  it. 


The  Chesapeake  227 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  no  natural  beds  have  ever  been 
so  carefully  examined  and  charted  as  have  those  of 
Maryland.  Their  limits  have  been  drawn  liberally  in 
favor  of  tongers  and  dredgers,  and  are  marked  by  per- 
manent buoys.  The  Shell-fish  Commission  has  pub- 
lished expert  advice  in  regard  to  specific  areas  open  for 
lease,  on  which  conditions  for  planting  or  for  seed  collec- 
tion seem  to  be  favorable.  They  have  designated  other 
areas  as  of  doubtful  value.  They  have  given  reasons  for 
some  previous  failures  under  the  "  five-acre  law" — due 
to  ignorance  of  biological  conditions  necessary  for  the 
attachment  of  spat.  By  experiment,  they  have  shown 
to  doubters  among  the  oystermen  that  abundant  seed 
may  be  captured  on  collectors  in  the  Chesapeake  as  well 
as  in  Long  Island  Sound.  They  have  done  everything 
that  any  similar  body  of  men  could  do,  under  the  condi- 
tions, to  inaugurate  a  new  and  prosperous  era  for  Mary- 
land. 

But  some  of  the  legislative  conditions  probably  are 
anything  but  favorable,  and  it  is  safe  to  predict  that 
oyster  culture  will  have  a  very  slow  growth  in  the  state 
until  changes  are  made.  Experience  has  shown  that 
oyster  culture  which  shall  produce  the  best  stock,  and  be 
able  to  market  it  with  certainty  when  it  is  demanded,  can 
only  be  carried  on  by  large  interests.  With  several 
thousand  acres,  on  which  natural  conditions  vary,  an  in- 
dividual or  a  company  may  obtain  a  set,  transplant  it  to 
growing  beds,  move  it  again,  if  necessary,  to  fattening 
grounds,  always  have  oysters  ready  for  market,  operate 
vessels  that  can  obtain  them  quickly  and  at  any  time,  and 
thus  keep  the  market  steady  and  certain.  Those  on 
whom  perfect  reliance  can  be  placed  in  the  delivery  of 
the  best  goods,  will  always  have  the  best  markets. 


228  Our  Food  Mollusks 

Under  the  present  system,  Maryland  can  have  only 
small  planters,  who  may  succeed  one  year  and  fail  an- 
other. Holdings  are  not  large  enough  to  warrant  the 
employment  of  suitable  boats.  Most  of  the  planted 
oysters  will  be  tonged  or  "  scraped "  after  the  old 
fashion,  and  only  in  good  weather  is  such  work  possible. 
If  leases  should  become  numerous,  much  litigation  will 
arise  because  boundaries  are  insufficiently  surveyed  and 
charted.  Prices  will  rise  and  fall  as  many  or  few  bring 
in  their  harvest,  and  these  small  and  poor  planters  will 
have  the  greatest  difficulty  in  protecting  themselves 
against  dredging  vessels. 

The  foremost  desire  is  still  for  direct  revenue  to  the 
state.  The  direct  revenue  system  of  Rhode  Island  is 
very  attractive  about  the  Chesapeake,  but  Narragansett 
Bay  is  small  enough  to  be  policed  efficiently,  and  cap- 
ital is  invested  only  because  the  state  offers  unlimited  ter- 
ritory and  has  allowed  much  of  it  to  be  taken  by  non- 
residents. Many  of  the  essential  conditions  are  differ- 
ent in  Rhode  Island,  and  it  is  doubtful  if,  even  there,  the 
state  profits  by  its  industry  as  does  Connecticut,  in  which 
bottoms  are  sold,  but  where  taxable  property  has  de- 
veloped indirectly  under  the  great  increase  of  the  oyster 
business. 

But  in  the  course  of  time — after  the  natural  oyster  beds 
have  been  destroyed — the  tonger  and  the  dredger  of  the 
natural  crop  will  have  disappeared.  All  opposition  to 
oyster  culture  having  vanished,  the  Chesapeake,  rich  with 
food  for  an  unlimited  oyster  growth,  free  from  the  most 
destructive  of  oyster  enemies,  with  its  safe  and  unvary- 
ing natural  conditions,  will  prove  to  be  of  greater  value 
to  the  people  on  its  shores  than  mountains  full  of  silver 
and  gold. 


CHAPTER  XV 
THE    NORTH    CAROLINA    FIELD 

XAMINING  a  map  of  North  Carolina,  one 
finds  a  long-,  narrow  strip  of  land  that,  ex- 
tending southward  from  the  Virginia  shore, 
bounds  more  than  half  the  coast  line  of  the 
state.  This  sandy  barrier,  more  than  two  hundred  miles 
long,  and  formed  by  the  action  of  waves,  is  wide  and  per- 
manent enough  effectually  to  shut  off  from  the  sea  a 
series  of  large,  shallow  sounds.  On  the  north  is  the  nar- 
row Currituck  Sound.  This  communicates  at  its  south- 
ern end  with  Albemarle  Sound,  that  reaches  inward  from 

229 


230  Our  Food  Mollusks 

the  ocean  for  a  distance  of  sixty  miles.  Still  farther  to 
the  south,  and  connected  with  Albemarle,  lie  the  more 
extensive  waters  of  Pamlico  Sound.  Continuing  down 
the  coast,  one  finds  the  much  narrower  Core  and  Bogue 
sounds. 

The  map  shows  that  the  ocean  barrier  effectually  shuts 
off  the  two  northern  sounds  from  the  sea.  Opening  into 
Pamlico  Sound,  however,  are  two  large,  and  several 
smaller  inlets,  and  through  them  so  much  salt  water  en- 
ters, that  characteristic  marine  shore  animals  and  plants 
are  found  growing  in  abundance  on  its  bottom.  Be- 
tween Core  and  Bogue  sounds,  also,  is  a  large  inlet,  and 
the  waters  of  these  are  salt. 

One  other  physical  feature  of  the  region,  shown  on  the 
map,  is  of  great  importance  in  a  study  of  its  biological 
conditions.  It  is  that  several  large  and  many  small 
rivers  enter  the  sounds  on  their  western  shores.  As  one 
might  surmise  from  an  examination  of  the  map  alone, 
Currituck  and  Albemarle  sounds  are  nearly  fresh,  and 
oysters  and  clams  are  not  able  to  live  in  them. 

But  oysters  do  not  breed  readily — indeed,  are  not  able 
naturally  to  maintain  themselves — in  water  having  the 
salinity  of  the  open  sea.  Successful  growth  demands 
within  somewhat  narrow  limits,  a  mixture  of  sea  and 
fresh  waters,  and  it  is  because  these  natural  requirements 
are  very  nearly  met  in  Pamlico  Sound  and  near  the 
Bogue  Sound  inlet,  that  they  become  profitable  fields  of 
study  to  one  interested  in  the  future  development  of  the 
oyster  industry. 

The  coast  of  South  Carolina  is  quite  different  from 
that  which  has  just  been  noticed,  in  that  most  of  it  is  un- 
broken. At  the  city  of  Charleston  and  just  above  the 
Georgia  line,  however,  there  are  bays  with  many  rami- 


The  North  Carolina  Field  231 

fkations,  and  in  these  there  are  natural  oyster  beds. 
Though  the  oysters  are  generally  of  poor  quality,  several 
canneries  have  been  established  in  the  state  to  supply  a 
local  market.  The  possible  production  of  these  bays  un- 
der culture  methods  merits  attention,  but  reference  to  it 
will  be  omitted  from  this  account,  only  the  larger  and 
more  promising  field  in  North  Carolina  being  considered. 

This  latter  in  some  respects  is  strikingly  different  from 
the  fields  farther  north  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  It  also 
differs  from  the  oyster  areas  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and 
in  most  ways,  perhaps,  to  its  disadvantage.  It  is  with- 
out doubt  the  poorest  of  the  large  Atlantic  oyster 
grounds,  and  yet  it  is  valuable,  and  under  culture  meth- 
ods fostered  by  wise  legislation,  may  in  the  future  be- 
come much  more  so. 

The  map  will  show  much  irregularity  in  the  western 
shore-line  of  North  Carolina's  oyster  area.  Many  bays, 
or,  as  they  are  called  locally,  rivers  or  creeks,  lead  into 
broader  waters  from  surrounding  marshes.  In  these 
rivers  are  usually  many  oysters,  and  their  peculiar  posi- 
tion or  distribution  would  excite  the  interest  of  a  north- 
ern oysterman;  for  they  are  found  only  along  the  river 
banks,  and  are  very  generally  absent  from  the  bottoms. 
Not  only  is  this  true,  but  the  majority  of  them  lie  within 
the  limits  of  the  high  and  low  tide  lines,  and  as  a  conse- 
quence are  exposed  to  the  air  for  long  periods  each  day. 
The  average  vertical  distance  between  tide  levels  over 
this  field  is  about  three  feet. 

When  the  bank  of  a  river  or  creek  rises  abruptly  from 
the  low  tide  mark,  a  narrow  line  of  oysters,  all  exposed 
at  low  tide,  will  be  found  along  its  surface.  But  often 
the  banks  are  so  low  that  the  rising  water  flows  over 
them  and  covers  an  extensive  area  on  each  side,  thus 


232  Our  Food  Mollusks 

forming  tidal  flats  that  may  be  partially  or  completely 
covered  with  oysters  (Figure  49). 

Islands  are  formed  in  many  of  the  channels,  often  so 
numerous  that  there  remain  only  narrow  streams  be- 
tween them.  Though  these  rise  only  a  few  inches  above 
the  high  water  line,  they  are  frequently  covered  with 
grass  in  the  center.  Around  their  margins  are  oyster 
fringes,  here,  as  elsewhere,  extending  from  the  low  to 
the  high  tide  level. 

It  has  recently  been  shown  by  some  very  interesting 
observations  conducted  by  Dr.  Caswell  Grave,  that  these 
islands  are  formed  by  the  oysters  themselves.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  process  there  may  have  been  an  open 
channel,  the  river  banks  alone  being  fringed  with 
oysters.  A  river  bank,  of  course,  does  not  lie  in  a  per- 
fectly straight  line.  Here  and  there  parts  of  it  project 
into  the  current.  Now  oysters  growing  on  such  points 
are  very  much  favored,  because  the  currents  are  a  little 
more  rapid  there.  This  means  that  aeration  is  better, 
and  especially  that  a  greater  amount  of  food  is  brought. 
Consequently  these  favored  oysters  grow  more  rapidly 
than  others.  Their  number,  also,  increases  more  rap- 
idly here,  for  the  reason  that  the  more  active  current 
keeps  their  shells  comparatively  clean,  thus  affording  ob- 
jects for  the  attachment  of  the  young.  A  greater  number 
of  swimming  embryos,  also,  will  be  brought  to  the  pro- 
jecting point  by  the  swifter  current  than  to  other  parts 
of  the  river  bank.  From  time  to  time,  winds,  waves  or 
ice,  break  clusters  of  oysters  from  the  point.  They  roll 
down  toward  the  channel,  many  of  the  oysters  continu- 
ing to  live  and  grow.  Year  after  year  these  clusters  ac- 
cumulate on  the  bottom  beyond  the  point.  Sediment 
gradually  settles  among  the  lower  shells,  while  new  gen- 


FIG.  48.  Laboratory  employees  tonging  and  culling  clustered 
oysters  in  Louisiana.  Note  the  character  of  tongs  and 
culling  board. 


FIG.  49.  Natural  growth  of  "coon  oyster"  clusters  between 
tide  lines  in  South  Carolina.  Professor  Bashford  Dean, 
U.  S.  F.  C.  Bulletin. 


Of    THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


The  North  Carolina  Field  233 

erations  of  oysters  attach  to  the  upper  ones,  so  that 
finally  the  living  oysters  are  raised  first  to  the  low  and 
then  nearly  to  the  high  tide  line.  In  this  manner,  the 
point,  advancing  on  the  foundation  that  it  itself  prepares, 
thrusts  itself  in  the  form  of  a  narrow  reef  out  into  the 
current,  and  its  advance  will  continue  until  the  direction 
of  the  current  is  changed,  or  its  force  is  checked. 

In  the  meantime,  the  current  has  become  so  slow  at  the 
point  on  the  shore  from  which  the  reef  began  to  grow, 
that  most  of  the  oysters  in  that  locality  have  died. 
There  is  here,  then,  no  longer  a  living  crust  of  oysters 
on  the  reef  to  protect  it  from  erosion,  and  gradually  the 
rising  and  falling  tides  wear  through  it,  and  cut  it  down 
until  the  remainder  of  the  reef  has  lost  all  connection 
with  the  shore  from  which  it  arose,  and  has  become  an 
island.  This  widens  somewhat,  waves  now  and  then 
throw  detached  oysters  on  to  its  center,  floating  matter 
catches  there,  grass  begins  to  grow,  and  it  gradually  rises 
above  the  ordinary  high  tide  line.  Around  its  margins 
oysters  still  continue  to  grow  between  the  tide  lines. 

Such  a  process  requires  many  years  for  its  completion, 
and  even  after  an  island  is  formed,  it  probably  is  still  sub- 
jected to  slow  but  unceasing  changes  that  are  in  some 
cases  constructive,  in  others  destructive.  In  many  of  the 
bays  or  rivers,  all  stages  of  growth,  from  the  small  and 
inconspicuous  point  to  the  fully  developed  island,  may 
be  observed. 

To  one  familiar  with  other  fields  where  oysters  never 
are  found  fixed  between  the  tide  lines,  but  exist  only  on 
bottoms  that  are  continually  immersed,  these  peculiarly 
elevated  reefs,  and  bottoms  so  generally  barren,  are  very 
curious.  Two  questions  at  once  arise  in  his  mind. 
First,  why  do  not  oysters  naturally  establish  themselves 


234  Our  Food  Mollusks 

on  beaches  and  flats  in  the  Chesapeake  or  Long  Island 
waters,  as  they  do  here?  All  Atlantic  oysters  are  of  one 
species,  and  in  all  regions  their  habits  are  probably 
identical;  yet  in  one  place  they  grow  and  reproduce  on 
periodically  exposed  flats,  and  in  the  other,  only  on  the 
bottom  below  tide  lines.  The  answer  is  that  they  do  at- 
tach between  the  tide  lines  in  the  northern  fields,  but  that 
very  early  in  the  terrible  northern  winter,  every  such  un- 
fortunate perishes  from  cold. 

But  a  second  question  is  not  so  easily  answered.  Why, 
in  these  marginal  waters  of  the  Carolina  sounds,  do 
oysters  not  more  often  appear  on  the  bottoms  below  the 
tide  lines?  Farther  north  it  is  only  in  such  a  position 
that  they  establish  themselves.  Several  suggestions 
have  been  made  concerning  conditions  that  might  ex- 
plain the  phenomenon.  The  most  plausible  is  that  the 
water  is  so  heavily  burdened  with  silt,  frequently  depos- 
ited, that  very  young  oysters  are  smothered,  even  when 
not  actually  covered  by  it,  possibly,  it  has  been  suggested, 
because  their  gills  become  encumbered  with  mud  par- 
ticles. This  probably  is  not  true.  The  gill  of  the  adult 
can  free  itself  of  any  quantity  of  mud,  as  may  be  shown 
by  experiment.  Adult  oysters  sometimes  survive  when 
deposits  have  been  so  heavy  as  to  cover  them  to  a  depth 
of  several  inches,  the  gill  currents  keeping  an  opening 
through  the  mud  like  the  burrow  of  a  clam.  The  gills 
of  the  young  probably  are  not  less  capable  of  keeping 
their  surfaces  clean. 

The  fall  of  silt  in  some  waters  may,  of  course,  be  so 
heavy  as  to  cover,  and  thus  to  smother,  recently  attached 
oysters;  but  even  when  less  heavy,  it  may,  when  long 
continued,  lead  to  their  death,  not  by  smothering,  or 
preventing  the  oxygenation  of  the  blood,  but  by  starv- 


The  North  Carolina  Field  235 

ing  the  young  bodies  that  have  not  yet  stored  reserve 
food  in  their  tissues  (see  Chapter  IV).  The  mere  peri- 
odical sprinkling  of  young  oysters  with  silt  is  probably 
not  so  destructive  as  it  is  generally  supposed  to  be. 

It  may  be  noted  that  other  waters  than  these,  that 
successfully  support  oyster  life,  are  also  muddy.  Silt  is 
constantly  deposited  over  a  great  part  of  the  European 
oyster  territory.  The  waters  of  the  Chesapeake  are 
muddy.  The  finest  of  sediment  is  at  frequent  intervals 
settling  to  the  bottom  about  the  Mississippi  delta,  where 
flourishing  oyster  beds  below  low  water  are  everywhere 
present.  In  the  light  of  these  facts  it  may  seem  strange 
that  only  here  oysters  should  be  generally  absent  from 
the  bottom. 

It  will  be  shown  presently  that  in  these  rivers  oysters 
do  establish  themselves  below  the  low  water  level,  along 
the  sides  of  reefs.  They  are  confined  to  those  localities, 
and  the  bottoms  elsewhere  are  barren.  Such  segrega- 
tions are  formed  on  shells  that  drop  from  the  reefs  above 
and  pave  the  bottom,  no  matter  how  soft  it  may  be.  Not 
only  is  this  true,  but  the  young  attach  to  these  shells  and 
grow.  This  proves  that,  while  the  water  is  often  ex- 
cessively muddy,  not  enough  silt  is  deposited  to  prevent 
oyster  growth  when  the  bottom  is  once  paved. 

The  bottoms  below  tide  lines  are  very  generally  barren, 
then,  only  because,  away  from  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
oyster  reefs,  there  is  no  natural  deposit  of  any  foreign 
objects  to  harden  it.  Experiments  show  that  if  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  oyster  shells  or  other  hard  bodies  are 
spread  on  the  softest  of  these  bottoms  during  the  breed- 
ing season,  so  as  to  afford  surfaces  for  attachment,  beds 
of  oysters  form  on  them,  and  spread  at  the  margins,  one 
generation  growing  on  the  shells  of  another.  On  these 


236  Our  Food  Mollusks 

river  bottoms  there  have  never  been,  under  natural  con- 
ditions, any  such  bodies  that  might  afford  attachment, 
and  thus  serve  as  a  nucleus  for  oyster  growth.  Along 
the  north  coast  are  stones,  and  gravel,  and  the  shells  of 
mollusks;  and  about  the  Mississippi  delta,  vast  numbers 
of  shells  of  two  or  three  species  of  small  bivalves  that 
inhabit  the  mud,  came  naturally,  in  certain  localities,  to 
lie  on  the  surfaces  of  the  softest  bottoms.  On  these, 
natural  beds  became  established. 

There  are  very  extensive  oyster  beds  on  the  banks  of 
these  small  bays  or  rivers.  Because  they  are  exposed  at 
low  water,  these  oysters  could  easily  be  gathered.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  they  are  seldom  disturbed,  for  they  are 
not  marketable.  They  have  been  used  as  a  fertilizer, 
and  burned  for  the  lime  in  their  shells.  A  few  of  the 
oyster  establishments  occasionally  succeed  in  disposing 
of  them  in  cans,  but  from  the  commercial  point  of  view 
they  are  almost  valueless  on  account  of  their  small  size, 
elongated  form,  and  poor  condition. 

To  one  who  has  seen  oysters  only  from  artificial  beds, 
where  they  lie  spread  out  in  an  even  layer,  these  present 
a  strange  appearance.  What  first  attracts  attention  is 
that  they  are  in  clusters  of  various  sizes.  If  one  were 
to  attempt  to  lift  a  cluster  from  the  bank,  he  would  find 
that  its  base  extended  down  into  the  mud  so  deep  as  to 
afford  a  secure  anchorage.  A  vigorous  pull  may  dis- 
lodge the  whole  mass,  though  the  lower  part  of  it  may  be 
buried  under  many  inches  of  soft  mud.  It  will  then  be 
discovered  that  the  cluster  of  living  oysters  that  was  ex- 
posed above  the  bottom,  is  firmly  attached  to  a  number 
of  empty  oyster  shells  below  them,  the  whole  being  fused 
into  a  compact  mass.  The  shells  of  living  and  dead 
oysters  thus  bound  together  may  number  scores. 


The  North  Carolina  Field  237 

The  explanation  for  such  a  relation  between  so  many 
individuals  is  simple.  A  single  large  oyster  shell  may 
lie  on  the  surface  of  the  mud  near  living  oysters.  If  it 
is  free  from  slime  when  oyster  embryos  are  swimming 
in  the  water,  it  affords  a  surface  for  the  attachment  of 
one  or  more  of  them.  Usually  several  establish  them- 
selves on  it.  Not  all  of  these  live,  and  many  perish 
early.  A  few  continue  to  live  and  extend  their  bodies 
upward  into  the  current.  Only  those  that  grow  upward 
can  survive,  for  the  currents  steadily  deposit  silt  obtained 
from  the  land.  Slowly  the  original  shell  is  buried,  and 
finally  disappears,  and  the  mud  creeps  up  to  the  younger 
individuals  that  it  bears.  If  their  bodies  are  growing 
outward  from  its  sides,  they,  too,  are  covered.  Again 
in  the  breeding  season,  a  second  generation  attaches  it- 
self to  the  exposed  portions  of  the  shells  of  the  first.  If 
sediment  has  collected  rapidly,  they  become  fixed  only 
to  the  exposed  edges  of  the  shells;  if  slowly,  to  any  part 
of  them,  in  this  case  forming  a  larger  and  broader 
cluster. 

Year  after  year  the  process  continues.  The  earlier 
generations  are  buried  and  die,  but  still  their  empty  shells 
lift  up  their  descendants  into  the  life-giving  streams 
above.  The  time  finally  comes  when  the  earlier  shells 
are  completely  dissolved,  if  the  mud  contains  acids 
formed  by  the  decay  of  organic  matter,  but  it  is  often 
possible  to  distinguish  in  the  cluster  uprooted  from  the 
mud,  six  or  seven  generations  of  oysters. 

The  oysters  of  these  river  banks  are  of  little  value 
commercially,  because  of  their  form  and  condition.  Most 
of  them  are  narrow  and  greatly  elongated,  and  this  is  due 
entirely  to  crowding.  Like  clams  in  small  and  irregular 
spaces  between  stones,  their  growing  bodies  conform  to 


238  Our  Food  Mollusks 

the  outlines  of  the  available  space.  The  shell  is  some- 
times greatly  distorted.  Crowded  oysters  growing 
parallel  with  each  other  on  the  top  of  a  cluster  can 
only  elongate,  if  they  grow  at  all.  Oysters,  when  not 
crowded  or  confined,  assume  a  rounded  form,  though 
when  allowed  to  become  very  old  and  large,  they 
normally  begin  to  elongate.  The  soft  parts  of  densely 
clustered  oysters  are  usually  thin  and  watery,  probably 
because  food  is  not  sufficient  for  all  members  of  a 
cluster.  This  is  especially  true  of  oysters  exposed  at 
low  tide,  for  they  are  able  to  obtain  food  only  when 
immersed. 

Such  elongated  forms  are  called  "  raccoon  "  or  "  coon 
oysters,"  either  from  their  fancied  resemblance  to  a 
raccoon's  paw  or  from  the  fact  that  these  animals  frequent 
the  beaches  where  they  are  found,  presumably  in  search 
of  them. 

Clusters  of  coon  oysters  are  not  peculiar  to  the  Caro- 
lina sounds.  Where  beds  are  not  frequently  tonged, 
they  are  found  in  Louisiana,  and  would  form  readily  in 
northern  oyster  waters  if  left  undisturbed.  A  cluster  on 
a  hard,  clean  bottom  would  assume  a  roughly  hemispher- 
ical, instead  of  an  elongated  form,  because  young  oysters 
attaching  to  the  sides,  as  well  as  to  the  top  of  the  grow- 
ing cluster,  would  be  able  to  live  and  grow.  These,  also, 
not  being  so  often  forced  to  grow  parallel  with  each  other 
as  in  the  case  of  those  being  covered  with  mud,  would 
not  so  often  be  elongated. 

A  question  of  economic  importance  presents  itself 
here.  As  the  elongated  form  assumed  by  clustered 
oysters  is  due  only  to  close  crowding,  would  such  oysters 
become  large  and  well  rounded  if  separated  from  the 
clusters  and  spread  on  a  suitable  bottom?  Might  not 


The  North  Carolina  Field 


239 


these  useless  coon  oysters  be  converted  into  marketable 
forms  ? 

As  a  result  of  observations  recently  made  in  North 
Carolina  waters  by  members  of  the  staff  of  investigators 
of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Fisheries,  it  may  be  answered 
that  the  larger  coon  oysters  are  not  able  to  make  much 
improvement  in  form.  But  it  has  been  shown  that  in- 


FIG.  50. — Upper  row,  young  oysters  beginning  to  elongate  from 
pressure  in  thick  clusters.  Lower  row  shows  rapid  improve- 
ment in  form  after  liberation  from  cluster.  Outlines  from 
photographs  by  O.  C.  Glaser,  U.  S.  F.  C.  Report. 

dividuals  less  than  two  inches  in  length,  even  though 
they  may  have  begun  to  elongate,  do  respond,  on  being 
freed  from  clusters,  by  assuming  the  desired  normal  out- 
line and  size.  This  is  a  fact  of  some  importance,  for  it 
proves  that  seed  oysters,  in  case  of  a  poor  set  upon  col- 
lectors, may  safely  be  taken  from  these  abundant 
clusters. 

The  results  of  such  an  experiment  are  represented  in 
Figure  50.  The  individuals  of  the  upper  row  were 
taken  from  clusters,  and  had  begun  to  elongate.  The 
actual  length  of  the  larger  ones  was  about  one  and  three- 
fourths  inches.  The  lower  group  represents  the  same 


240  Our  Food  Mollusks 

oysters  after  a  growth  of  but  two  months  on  a  favorable 
bottom.  They  have  not  greatly  increased  in  size,  the 
larger  ones  being  about  two  and  a  half  inches  in  length ; 
but  the  significant  fact  shown  in  their  outlines,  is  that 
immediately  after  being  freed  from  their  crowded  con- 
dition, they  began  to  widen  and  assume  the  normal  form. 

It  may  appear  from  some  of  the  statements  made 
that  the  marginal  waters  of  the  sounds  would  be  of 
little  value  if  oyster  culture  were  to  be  practised  in 
North  Carolina,  but  though  clustered  oysters  exposed  at 
low  tide  are  not  marketable,  they  would  become  in- 
valuable in  case  artificial  beds  were  constructed  in  the 
sounds,  because  of  the  vast  numbers  of  oyster  embryos 
that  they  produce.  These  embryos,  suspending  them- 
selves in  the  water  for  many  hours,  may  be  carried  to 
some  distance  by  currents  before  they  finally  settle  to 
the  bottom  and  make  the  attempt  to  attach  themselves. 
How  far,  in  extreme  cases,  they  may  thus  be  transported 
before  becoming  attached,  no  one  is  able  to  say.  Cases 
are  known  in  which  they  have  been  carried  several  miles. 
But  spat  collectors  spread  on  bottoms  near  the  reefs, 
judicially  selected  with  reference  to  tide  currents  that 
might  bear  the  embryos  from  them,  would,  in  most  sea- 
sons, be  able  to  gather  a  supply  of  young  that,  under 
normal  conditions,  settle  on  the  soft  mud  and  perish. 

But  in  still  another  way  these  natural  reefs  are  already 
valuable,  for  it  is  from  them  that  the  existing  tonging 
grounds  have  arisen.  Two  agencies,  one  natural,  the 
other  artificial,  have  been  at  work  on  the  natural  reefs 
to  form  beds  of  another  sort,  on  which  a  considerable 
number  of  marketable  oysters  are  found. 

If  one  were  carefully  to  observe  the  reef  oysters 
through  the  various  seasons  of  the  year,  he  would  dis- 


The  North  Carolina  Field  241 

cover  that  now  and  then  certain  of  them  break  from  the 
reef  and  roll  down  the  steep  sides  into  the  channel.  This 
occurs  when  storm  waves  at  high  tide  dash  against  the 
clusters,  breaking  or  uprooting  them.  In  winter,  the 
grinding  action  of  ice  adds  to  the  number  of  oysters  lying 
on  the  deeper  bottom  below  the  tide  lines.  The  ac- 
cumulation is  made  slowly,  but  continues  from  year  to 
year,  and  finally  a  firm  shell  bottom,  sometimes  many 
yards  in  width,  is  formed  parallel  to  the  sides  of  the 
reef.  On  this  are  found  not  only  clusters  that  have 
rolled  down,  but  single  oysters  scattered  here  and  there, 
which,  having  grown  without  crowding,  have  become 
large  and  rounded.  In  the  breeding  season,  swimming 
young  attach  to  these  deeper  shells  as  well  as  to  those  be- 
tween tide  lines,  and  in  this  way  the  deeper  bed  grows 
rapidly.  As  one  would  expect,  these,  if  left  to  grow 
undisturbed,  become  as  completely  clustered  and  worth- 
less as  the  reef  oysters  above  them.  But  wind,  waves, 
and  frost,  thus  operating  to  form  a  new  bed,  have  scat- 
tered over  it  so  many  single  oysters  that  they  begin  to  be 
sought  by  tongers,  and  in  this  way  is  introduced  the 
more  important  agency  that  makes  the  tonging  ground 
more  extensive  and  valuable. 

Consciously  or  unconsciously  the  tongers  begin  to 
practise  a  very  successful  method  of  oyster  culture.  They 
lift  from  the  bottom  numbers  of  empty  shells,  small 
clusters,  and  a  few  single  oysters  of  large  size.  Because 
the  clusters  are  comparatively  small,  they  contain  some 
individuals  of  good  shape  and  size.  These  are  separated 
from  the  others  on  a  culling  board  carried  by  the  boat, 
and  the  empty  shells  and  small  oysters  from  the  broken 
clusters  are  returned  to  the  bottom.  Two  important  re- 
sults follow  this  practice.  The  area  of  the  shelled  bot- 


242  Our  Food  Mollusks 

torn  is  increased,  and  clusters  are  broken  apart,  the  num- 
ber of  single  small  oysters  on  the  bottom  being  rapidly 
multiplied.  Oysters  probably  are  not  culled  on  the 
ground  with  the  purpose  of  extending  or  improving  the 
beds,  but  because  the  waste  material  from  culling  is  too 
great  in  volume  to  be  carried  to  the  shore.  But  here  is 
only  another  demonstration  of  the  fact  that  the  shelling 
of  the  bottom  and  the  breaking  and  scattering  of  clusters 
soon  produces  a  valuable  oyster  bed. 

The  total  area  of  the  existing  river  tonging  grounds 
is  so  limited  that  they  have  never  been  of  great  com- 
mercial importance,  and  in  recent  years  have  become 
much  less  prolific  than  formerly,  because  of  excessive 
tonging.  Before  the  opening  of  canning  establishments 
like  those  at  Beaufort,  it  was  sometimes  possible  for  a 
tonger  to  gather  in  one  day  thirty  or  even  forty  bushels 
of  oysters  from  these  river  beds;  but  the  canneries  so 
stimulated  the  fishing  that  at  the  present  time  the  max- 
imum catch  is  not  more  than  fifteen  bushels.  The  price 
received  for  these  oysters,  also,  is  small.  When  sold  at 
the  canneries,  a  bushel  seldom  brings  the  tonger  more 
than  twelve  cents.  In  certain  seasons,  however,  he  is 
able  to  sell  his  oysters  for  immediate  consumption,  and 
then  may  receive  as  much  as  twenty-five  cents  a  bushel 
for  them.  At  best,  the  tonger's  business  is  a  poor  one. 

Experiment  also  has  shown  that  on  many  of  the  tong- 
ing grounds  natural  conditions  are  so  variable  that  all 
the  care  that  may  be  given  to  growing  oysters  would  be 
unavailing.  Variations  in  the  density  of  the  water, 
especially,  are  such  that  sometimes,  even  for  several  suc- 
cessive seasons,  oysters  become  so  poor  as  to  be  quite  un- 
salable. 

While  river  or  shore  grounds,  with  their  reefs  and  tong- 


The  North  Carolina  Field  243 

ing  bottoms,  possibly  may  never  produce  many  market- 
able oysters,  conditions  are  different  in  the  broader 
water.  In  Pamlico  Sound,  a  body  of  water  approx- 
imately sixty  miles  long  by  twenty-five  miles  wide,  the 
possibilities  of  future  oyster  culture  seem  to  be  great. 
Opening  through  the  spit  that  separates  it  from  the 
ocean,  are  five  or  six  inlets  of  sufficient  size  to  give  the 
sound  waters  a  tidal  rise  and  fall  of  three  or  four  feet. 
There  are,  however,  no  tidal  currents  except  near  the 
inlets,  but  variable  wind  currents,  often  having  a  velocity 
of  half  a  mile  an  hour,  are  frequently  developed,  and 
serve  the  purpose  of  carrying  food  to  extensive  oyster 
beds  in  various  parts  of  the  sound.  The  greater  part  of 
the  bottom  is  of  hard  sand,  covered  by  a  thin  layer  of 
mud  and  organic  material.  The  water  is  shallow,  sel- 
dom attaining  a  depth  of  more  than  twenty  feet.  Here 
and  there  are  extensive  tracts  at  a  distance  from  shore 
over  which  there  are  less  than  ten  feet  of  water.  Waves 
drag  the  bottom  during  severe  storms,  and  sand  thus 
shifted  where  oysters  are  growing  destroys  them  in 
great  numbers. 

The  history  of  the  oyster  industry  in  Pamlico  Sound 
is  a  record  of  the  usual  series  of  events.  Natural  beds 
were  discovered,  dredging  became  excessive,  the  beds 
were  soon  impoverished,  many  of  them  being  completely 
destroyed,  and  the  ruin  of  a  large  natural  source  of 
wealth  was  begun.  All  this  occurred  much  more  rap- 
idly than  in  Chesapeake  Bay — a  fortunate  circumstance 
in  one  way,  because  it  is  the  usually  necessary  prelim- 
inary to  oyster  culture. 

In  the  winter  of  1887-8  a  survey  of  the  oyster  grounds 
of  the  sound  was  made  by  Lieutenant  Winslow,  U.  S.  N., 
and  many  extensive  oyster  beds,  before  unknown,  were 


244  Our  Food  Mollusks 

charted  at  this  time.  There  had  come  a  great  decline  in 
the  yield  of  the  Chesapeake.  In  the  year  1889  the  de- 
mand greatly  increased,  and  the  attention  of  Baltimore 
packers  was  drawn  to  this  newly  discovered  source  of 
supply  made  known  through  Winslow's  survey.  Many 
of  them  sent  their  vessels  south  to  "  develop  "  the  new 
territory.  Large  quantities  of  oysters  were  dredged  and 
sent  to  Baltimore,  where  they  were  marketed  by  can- 
ners  and  dealers  in  raw  oysters  as  the  product  of  Ches- 
apeake Bay. 

Pamlico  Sound  oysters  were  inferior  to  those  taken 
from  the  Chesapeake,  chiefly  because  they  were  from 
beds  that  had  never  been  dredged  or  extensively  tonged. 
Having  grown  undisturbed,  they  were  clustered,  but 
because  the  bottom  was  hard,  they  were  not  so  extremely 
elongated  as  on  the  river  reefs,  and  many  were  large 
and  of  good  shape. 

The  appearance  of  the  Chesapeake  dredgers  made  a 
great  and  sudden  change  in  the  modest  industry  of 
North  Carolina.  Previous  to  the  year  1889  oysters  had 
been  gathered  only  from  very  shallow  water  by  means  of 
primitive,  short-handled,  wooden-toothed  rakes.  From 
all  the  waters  of  the  state  the  number  taken  had  seldom 
exceeded  a  hundred  thousand  bushels.  Competition  in 
the  markets  with  other  states  had  been  impossible,  and 
only  local  needs  had  been  met. 

But  now  there  had  come  a  great  general  demand  with 
high  prices.  There  had  suddenly  appeared  a  number  of 
experienced  oystermen  with  implements  entirely  new  to 
the  region.  The  native  tongers  for  the  first  time  learned 
of  the  long-handled,  basket-like,  iron-headed  tongs  used 
in  the  Chesapeake,  and  they  soon  profited  by  the  knowl- 
edge. Formerly  they  had  been  content  to  fish  within  a 


The  North  Carolina  Field  245 

mile  or  two  of  the  shore  in  very  shallow  water,  but  the 
native  fishermen  soon  followed  their  more  venturesome 
visitors  farther  into  the  sound,  where  many  new  and 
extensive  beds  were  discovered.  In  a  short  time  the 
tonging  industry  became  an  extensive  and  important  one. 
While  much  of  it  was  carried  on  by  the  non-residents, 
local  interest  in  the  business  was  also  greatly  stimulated. 

The  really  important  matter,  however,  was  the  in- 
troduction of  the  dredge  to  these  waters,  where  previ- 
ously it  had  been  unknown.  Having  found  an  oyster 
bed  on  such  a  hard,  smooth  bottom,  the  captain  of  a 
Maryland  pungy  knew  how  to  load  it  rapidly.  The  seri- 
ous question  at  first  was  in  regard  to  the  number  and 
extent  of  oyster  beds ;  but  as  the  work  of  the  dredgers 
progressed,  new  beds  were  continually  discovered  for 
several  years,  until  many  times  the  number  indicated  in 
Winslow's  report  was  known.  Without  doubt  the  early 
hopes  of  the  Baltimore  dredgers  were  more  than  realized 
for  some  time.  But  if  any  entertained  the  idea  that 
Pamlico  Sound  would  continue  to  produce  oysters  as 
the  Chesapeake  had  done,  while  subjected  to  the  rapacious 
method  of  dredging  employed,  they  were  disappointed. 
There  is  but  one  possible  result  from  such  methods. 
It  was  long  delayed  in  the  Chesapeake,  because  of  its 
unequaled  fertility,  but  it  was  not  long  delayed  here. 

A  few  statistical  statements  will  tell  the  story  of  the 
rise  and  decline  of  the  oyster  fisheries  of  North  Carolina 
after  the  advent  of  the  Maryland  oystermen. 

For  some  years  before  the  survey  of  Winslow,  there 
had  been  kept  a  more  or  less  accurate  record  of  the  num- 
ber of  bushels  of  oysters  taken  by  residents  from  the 
waters  of  the  state.  From  this  it  appears  that  it  rarely 
exceeded  a  hundred  thousand  bushels,  and  was  often 


246  Our  Food  Mollusks 

much  less.  In  1890  the  resident  oystermen  alone  sold 
914,130  bushels — probably  quite  ten  times  the  average 
number  formerly  gathered.  But  during  this  one  season, 
the  non-resident  dredgers,  who  had  excited  all  this  in- 
dustry among  the  local  oystermen,  gathered  and  carried 
away  a  much  larger  number,  of  which  no  record  was 
made.  The  outsiders  had  now  come  not  only  from  the 
Chesapeake,  but  also  from  Delaware  and  New  Jersey, 
and  their  dredging  vessels  numbered  at  least  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty.  It  has  been  estimated  that  in  this  year 
they  obtained  at  least  1,800,006  bushels  from  Pamlico 
Sound. 

When  these  facts  were  understood  by  the  people  of  the 
state,  they  naturally  felt  very  strongly  that  they  were 
being  despoiled  by  outsiders  of  great  wealth  belonging 
to  them  alone,  and  before  another  oyster  season  had 
come,  drastic  laws  were  passed  that  prohibited  all  dredg- 
ing by  non-residents,  and  shortened  the  season  for  the 
taking  of  oysters  by  resident  oystermen.  The  result  of 
the  enforcement  of  these  laws  exceeded  all  expectations, 
as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  number  of  bushels  mar- 
keted during  the  season  ending  in  1894  was  'only  sixty 
thousand — less  than  the  average  of  the  earlier  years, 
when  only  wooden  tongs  were  employed.  But  still  the 
laws  were  retained,  and  in  the  season  ending  in  1897,  but 
forty  thousand  bushels  were  reported  as  having  been 
taken. 

Of  course,  such  a  degree  of  stagnation  made  it  evi- 
dent that  a  mistake  had  been  made,  and  in  that  year  the 
open  season  was  lengthened.  The  wisdom  of  the  change 
was  proved  during  the  following  season,  when  858,818 
bushels  were  marketed.  Very  much  encouraged  by  this 
showing,  with  the  demand  for  oysters  increasing,  the 


The  North  Carolina  Field  247 

oystermen  made  great  preparations  for  the  season  of 
1898-9.  A  large  number  of  dredging  vessels  and  tong- 
ing  boats  began  work  with  its  opening  and  continued  to 
its  close.  The  total  number  of  oysters  marketed  was 
greater  than  ever  before,  1,559,000  bushels  being  cred- 
ited to  the  dredgers,  and  900,000  to  the  tongers. 

Naturally,  hopes  for  the  season  of  1899-1900  were 
high,  but  it  brought  disappointment,  for  dredgers  and 
tongers  together  succeeded  in  gathering  about  1,900,000 
bushels,  a  number  far  below  that  expected.  In  many 
cases  dredgers  were  not  able  to  pay  expenses  by  their 
catch.  The  season's  work  clearly  developed  the  fact 
that  the  source  of  supply  was  limited.  The  optimism 
of  the  previous  years,  that  could  see  nothing  but  an 'in- 
exhaustible supply,  gave  way  to  the  fear,  in  many  minds, 
that  the  beds  were  being  destroyed  by  excessive  dredging. 

Another  explanation  for  the  decrease  was  offered, 
however.  In  the  months  of  August  and  October  of  the 
year  1899,  terrific  southeast  gales  had  torn  the  bottom, 
and  had  cast  upon  the  west  and  northwest  shores  of  the 
sound  large  numbers  of  oysters  from  shallower  beds. 
It  also  covered  many  shore  beds  with  mud  and  sand.  It 
was  asserted  that  waves  in  the  open  sound  had  been 
large  enough  to  drag  bottom,  and  that  shifting  sand  had 
thus  covered  and  destroyed  oysters  enough  to  account 
for  the  great  decrease  in  their  number  on  the  beds. 

In  January  and  February  of  the  year  1899,  the  United 
States  and  North  Carolina  Fish  Commissions  united  in 
an  effort  to  determine  the  causes  of  the  partial  failures 
of  the  fishing  reported  earlier  in  the  season.  The  in- 
vestigation showed  that  the  storms  had  indeed  made 
many  changes.  In  some  localities,  where  destruction 
had  been  greatest,  as  many  as  twenty  per  cent,  of  the 


248  Our  Food  Mollusks 

oysters  had  been  covered  with  sand  in  quantities  suffi- 
cient to  kill  them. 

But  it  was  shown  with  equal  certainty  that  the  beds 
had  been  reduced,  and  in  some  cases  almost  completely 
destroyed,  by  excessive  dredging,  and  that  this  had  been 
much  more  harmful  than  the  storms.  It  was  stated  in 
one  of  the  reports  on  this  investigation  that  for  two  or 
three  years  everything  that  came  up  in  the  dredges  of  the 
oystermen  had  been  taken  on  board  and  carried  to  the  can- 
neries, where  the  culling  had  been  done.  Culled  shells, 
often  bearing  young  oysters,  had  been  heaped  on  the 
shore  in  great  piles,  and  yet  the  law  provided  that  culling 
should  be  done  where  oysters  were  dredged,  empty  shells 
and  small  oysters  to  be  returned  to  the  bottom.  The  re- 
sponsibility for  this  lawlessness  rested  largely  on  the  state 
authorities,  for  no  attempt  had  been  made  to  enforce  the 
law.  A  fairly  good  harvest  is  still  marketed  each  year, 
but  the  cull  law  is  not  strictly  enforced,  and  the  natural 
beds  are  still  failing. 

True  oyster  culture  is  not  practised  in  the  state.  Arti- 
ficial beds  had  been  constructed  in  a  river  near  Beaufort 
as  early  as  1840,  and  subsequently  many  attempts  were 
made  to  rear  oysters  on  bottoms  selected  for  the  purpose. 
This  was  not  done  with  the  idea  of  producing  oysters  for 
market,  but  only  for  private  consumption.  The  small 
plots  were  spoken  of  as  "  oyster  gardens,"  and  the  term 
has  been  retained  locally  and  applied  to  all  artificial 
beds.  Since  1872  private  beds  have  been  authorized  by 
law. 

The  earlier  attempts  at  oyster  culture  were  naturally 
confined  to  the  rivers  and  small  bays  along  the  shores. 
They  were  conducted  on  a  very  small  scale,  and  appar- 
ently were  never  systematically  or  consistently  carried 


The  North  Carolina  Field  249 

out.  Usually  clusters  were  removed  from  a  reef  and 
thrown  unculled  on  a  convenient  bottom.  Naturally,  these 
transplanted  oysters  did  not  improve,  and  more  often 
perished.  Usually,  however,  young  oysters  became  at- 
tached to  their  shells  in  great  numbers.  In  this  way  it 
was  shown  that  in  some  localities  a  good  set  could  be  de- 
pended on,  and  that  with  suitable  collectors  a  seed- 
gathering  industry  might  easily  be  established.  But 
sooner  or  later  the  river  beds  have  invariably  failed  as 
growing  and  conditioning  grounds,  and  probably  never 
can  be  improved.  Until  the  present,  also,  there  has  been 
no  protection  against  trespassers,  a  condition  that  alone 
makes  oyster  culture  an  impossibility. 

Natural  conditions  in  Pamlico  Sound  are  much  bet- 
ter than  in  the  rivers.  At  about  the  time  of  the  publica- 
tion of  Winslow's  report,  on  the  natural  beds  of  the 
sound  in  1888,  and  again  a  decade  later,  much  enthusi- 
asm over  oyster  culture  was  developed,  and  many  beds 
were  constructed  in  the  sound ;  but  here,  also,  the  failure 
of  all  attempts  was  complete.  The  reason  given  for  this 
by  the  Fish  Commission  experts  who  studied  the  matter, 
is  that  those  making  the  experiments  were  unfamiliar 
with  the  biological  requirements.  Of  the  planters  it 
was  said,  "  They  were  not  aware  how  very  much  depends 
upon  the  selection  of  ground,  the  accessibility  of  an 
abundant  food  supply,  the  specific  gravity  of  the  water, 
and  its  freedom  from  extreme  fluctuations,  the  time  and 
methods  of  planting  cultch  and  oysters,  etc."  State 
laws  also,  very  defective  and  seldom  observed,  rendered 
success  impossible. 

There  are,  nevertheless,  reasons  for  believing  that  the 
biological  conditions  in  many  parts  of  Pamlico  Sound 
are  favorable  for  the  maintenance  of  an  artificial  oyster 


250  Our  Food  Mollusks 

industry  of  large  proportions.  The  cotton  states  of  the 
South  must  soon  increase  greatly  in  population.  With  a 
greater  market  for  oysters  near  at  hand,  extensive  oyster 
culture  may  be  expected  to  develop  in  the  sound,  if  rea- 
sonable laws  are  enacted  and  enforced. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
THE  GULF  OF  MEXICO 

N  the  many  hundreds  of  miles  of  the  Gulf 
shore  line  there  are  extensive  tracts  that  have 
always  borne  natural  oyster  beds,  but  as  com- 
pared with  the  Atlantic  coast,  this  is  prac- 
tically an  undeveloped  field.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
ninety  per  cent,  of  the  oysters  marketed  each  year  in 
the  United  States  comes  from  the  coast  north  of  the 
mouth  of  Chesapeake  Bay.  One  of  the  reasons  for  the 
unproductiveness  of  the  Gulf  is  that  the  population  of 
the  states  bounding  it  is  sparse  and  scattered.  There  are 
few  large  cities,  and  consequently  little  local  demand  for 
oysters.  As  population  and  wealth  increase,  it  is  to  be 
expected  that  the  natural  resources  of  the  waters  will  be 
developed,  but  most  of  the  Gulf  states  probably  have  a 

251 


252  Our  Food  Mollusks 

long  way  to  go  from  the  present  state  of  affairs  to  suc- 
cessful oyster  culture. 

Florida  is  the  most  backward  of  all  states  having  an 
oyster  territory.  In  prehistoric  times  great  quantities 
of  oysters  were  taken  from  its  bays  and  lagoons,  as  is 
shown  by  extensive  shell  heaps  along  both  of  its  coasts. 
On  the  Atlantic  side  natural  oyster  reefs  still  are  found 
near  Fernandina,  and  in  certain  parts  of  the  Indian 
River,  which  is  a  long,  narrow  bay  of  salt  water  cut  off 
from  the  ocean  by  a  low  ridge.  The  coast-line  on  the 
Gulf  side  is  broken  by  several  extensive  bays  and  wide 
river  mouths,  in  which  oysters  grow  luxuriantly. 

Oysters  from  parts  of  the  southernmost  coast  are  said 
to  be  very  "  coppery  "  in  taste.  This  peculiar  flavor  is 
to  be  found  in  oysters  from  many  localities  north  and 
south  in  this  country,  as  well  as  in  Europe.  It  is  not 
caused  by  the  presence  of  copper  in  solution  in  the  water, 
as  it  has  been  supposed,  but  its  nature  is  not  known. 

Many  of  the  oysters  of  the  lower  part  of  the  peninsula 
are  of  the  "  coon  "  type,  and  lie  above  the  low  water 
mark,  as  in  the  Carolinas.  Much  has  been  written  of 
oysters  attached  to  the  roots  of  the  mangroves  in  Florida, 
that  are  exposed  at  low  tide,  as  if  they  were  as  anomalous 
as  the  fruit  of  Eugene  Field's  "  Sugar-plum  Tree." 
These  "  oysters  that  grow  on  trees  "  are,  of  course,  ex- 
actly the  same  in  habit  and  in  position,  with  reference  to 
the  tide,  as  many  of  the  oysters  that  grow  on  mud.  In 
the  middle  and  upper  parts  of  the  Gulf  shore  are  many 
beds  bearing  oysters  of  good  shape.  This  is  because 
they  are  tonged  frequently  enough  to  insure  the  breaking 
apart  of  clusters. 

Here,  also,  most  of  the  beds  are  below  tide  lines.  As 
in  the  Carolinas,  they  have  the  form  of  long,  narrow 


The  Gulf  of  Mexico  253 

reefs,  and  lie  in  very  shallow  water.  Beneath  them  is  a 
deposit  of  soft,  deep  mud  that  characterizes  the  Gulf 
everywhere.  The  most  important  growth  is  in  Apalachi- 
cola  Bay,  but  it  is  almost  everywhere  covered  by  mussels. 

The  state  of  Florida  created  a  Fish  Commission  in 
1889.  It  formerly  paid  the  president  of  this  commis- 
sion, a  salary  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  a  year.  He 
has  now  been  made  "  Honorary  President,"  without  re- 
muneration. The  secretary  of  the  commission  has  never 
received  a  salary.  Out  of  pure  loyalty  to  the  common- 
wealth, entirely  without  appropriations,  with  almost  no 
authority,  advancing  the  interests  of  the  fisheries  to  the 
best  of  their  ability  from  their  private  means,  receiving 
no  indirect  benefit,  subject  to  criticism,  and  doing  a  large 
amount  of  valuable  work,  this  commission  has  served 
for  many  years. 

There  are  oyster  laws  in  Florida,  but  none  are  ob- 
served, except  that  the  cull  law,  requiring  shells  and 
small  oysters  to  be  replaced  on  the  beds  from  which  they 
are  taken,  has  been  enforced  in  Apalachicola  Bay — at  the 
expense  of  local  dealers,  and  not  by  the  state.  A  very 
few  oysters  are  steamed  and  canned. 

Undoubtedly  there  are  extensive  tracts  on  the  Gulf 
coast  of  Florida  that  might  supply  a  large  market  with 
cultivated  oysters.  An  estimate  based  on  a  U.  S.  Fish 
Commission  oyster  survey  places  the  number  of  acres 
suitable  for  oyster  culture  in  Apalachicola  Bay  alone  at 
6,800.  A  great  fear  that  assails  Florida  as  well  as  other 
states,  is  that  these  oyster  bottoms  may  sometime  fall 
into  the  hands  of  some  monstrous  corporation.  For  sev- 
eral reasons,  this  will  not  be  realized.  Among  them  are 
the  facts  that  capital  will  not  be  invested  while  political 
conditions  remain  as  they  are  on  the  Florida  shores,  and 


254  Our  Food  Mollusks 

that  the  shallow  bottoms  permit  the  gathering  of  oysters 
only  by  the  slow,  laborious,  and  uncertain  method  of 
tonging. 

A  glance  at  a  map  reveals  the  limited  shore  lines  of 
Alabama  and  Mississippi.  From  east  to  west  the  former 
has  about  fifty-five  and  the  latter  about  seventy  miles  of 
coast,  though  Mobile  Bay  and  Mississippi  Sound  make 
the  shore  line  actually  very  much  longer.  But  oyster 
waters  within  these  states  are  not  extensive  enough  to 
promise  important  developments  in  the  oyster  industry 
of  the  future. 

To  the  present  time,  however,  Mobile  in  Alabama,  and 
Biloxi  in  Mississippi,  have  been  important  canning  cen- 
ters. Most  of  the  oysters  canned  in  the  latter  city  were 
formerly  taken  from  waters  claimed  by  the  state  of 
Louisiana,  which  claim  was  upheld  by  the  U.  S.  Supreme 
Court  in  1906. 

Louisiana  is  the  most  progressive  of  oyster  producing 
states  excepting  those  of  the  northern  field.  Its  produc- 
tion is  not  large  when  compared  with  that  of  Maryland 
or  Virginia,  but  it  has  made  great  and  substantial  prog- 
ress in  oyster  culture,  and  the  industry,  responding  at 
once  to  sensible  and  liberal  laws,  is  growing  rapidly  and 
securely. 

In  one  respect  Louisiana  is  unique  among  states  pos- 
sessing oyster  fields.  While  the  greater  part  of  its  pro- 
duct has  been  derived  from  natural  beds,  it  has  not  waited 
until  these  were  destroyed  before  searching  for  some 
other  source  of  supply,  but  has  energetically  and  in- 
telligently encouraged  oyster  culture.  At  the  same  time 
its  natural  beds,  though  now  more  or  less  depleted,  are 
being  systematically  cared  for,  and  bid  fair  to  remain  as 
prolific  public  tonging  grounds  for  some  timt  to  come. 


The  Gulf  of  Mexico  255 

Better  oysters  than  those  from  the  natural  beds  are  being 
produced  in  increasing  numbers  on  cultivated  tracts. 

Every  one  is  familiar  with  the  manner  in  which  the 
great  Mississippi  is  bearing  down  and  depositing  in  the 
Gulf,  as  it  has  done  for  ages,  vast  quantities  of  surface 
soil  eroded  from  the  interior.  It  perhaps  is  not  so  well 
known  that  the  land  all  about  its  delta  is  slowly  subsid- 
ing. Back  from  the  shore,  the  preserved  stumps  of  trees 
once  standing  near  the  water,  have  been  found  hundreds 
of  feet  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground.  It  is  stated 
that  oyster  shells  have  been  encountered  at  a  depth  of 
two  thousand  feet,  in  some  of  the  recent  oil  well  borings 
near  the  Texas  line,  though  the  statement  needs  verifica- 
tion. In  spite  of  this  subsidence,  that  still  continues, 
the  river  is  building  its  channel  each  year  farther  into 
the  Gulf  on  its  own  deposit. 

The  whole  of  the  present  delta  and  the  shore  east  and 
west  of  it  is  irregular  and  much  broken.  Some  have 
estimated  the  actual  extent  of  the  shore  line  in  the  state 
at  two  thousand  miles,  but  on  account  of  its  unstable 
nature  in  some  places,  no  accurate  estimate  of  it  can  be 
made.  The  extent  of  the  enclosed  bays  and  lagoons  is, 
however,  very  great,  and  in  them  oysters  thrive.  Com- 
paratively few  oysters  are  found,  or  can  be  reared,  on 
the  west  half  of  the  coast  of  the  state. 

Some  very  optimistic  estimates  have  been  made  of  the 
area  available  for  oyster  culture.  One  writer,  for  ex- 
ample, citing  the  fact  that  oysters  are  planted  in  seventy- 
five  feet  of  water  in  Long  Island  Sound,  reasons  from  it 
in  the  following  interesting  manner: — If  it  is  possible  to 
rear  oysters  at  that  depth  in  Connecticut,  it  will  be  pos- 
sible also  in  Louisiana.  If,  then,  we  draw  a  line  on  the 
map  following  the  seventy-five  foot  level,  in  the  Gulf, 


256  Our  Food  Mollusks 

the  bottom  between  it  and  the  shore  will  constitute  the 
oyster  field.  This  area  embraces  six  million  acres. 

Though  it  is  believed  by  some  that  oysters  exist  in  the 
waters  of  the  open  Gulf,  this  has  not  been  demonstrated, 
and  is  very  doubtful.  Whether  conditions  will  allow  of 
their  growth  if  planted  there,  must  be  determined  by  ex- 
periment. What  evidence  we  possess,  as  will  be  ex- 
plained later,  makes  the  possibilities  of  oyster  culture  in 
open  waters  other  than  those  of  Chandeleur  and  Isle  au 
Breton  sounds  seem  to  be  very  few. 

The  broken  coast  of  St.  Bernard  Parish,  or  County,  as 
it  would  be  called  in  another  state,  is  quite  typical.  Sail- 
ing southeast  from  the  opening  of  Lake  Pontchartrain 
across  Lake  Borgne,  one  sights  what  seems  to  be  a  low, 
straight  shore  line  in  the  far  distance.  Soon  the  stranger 
to  this  region  discerns,  at  wide  intervals,  isolated  groves 
of  dense  forest  growth,  but  nothing  in  the  background 
to  break  the  monotony  of  the  straight  line  of  shore. 
Then,  with  bewildering  suddenness,  the  vessel  draws 
near;  the  distant  coast,  with  its  hidden  details,  resolves 
itself  into  a  line  of  grass  near  at  hand.  While  one  gazes 
at  them,  the  trees  shrink  into  low  shrubs,  and  one  ex- 
periences the  weird  sensation  of  having  arrived  at  the 
kingdom  of  Lilliput. 

But  the  vessel  skirts  this  dense  jungle  of  stiff,  high 
grass  from  morning  until  night,  and  a  second  or  a  third 
day  may  still  find  it  passing  the  unchanging,  but  by  no 
means  uninteresting,  borders  of  this  strange  kingdom. 
Now  and  then  an  excursion  may  be  made  into  its  interior 
through  one  of  the  numerous  inviting  channels  that  lead 
to  a  network  of  narrow  bayous,  broad  passages,  or  salt 
lakes,  many  of  them  of  great  size.  One  might  sail  for 
weeks  through  these  meadows  and  among  islands  always 


The  Gulf  of  Mexico  257 

new,  and  yet  always  the  same,  but  it  requires  only  a  short 
time  to  make  a  strong  impression  of  the  immense  ex- 
panse of  this  land.  There  are  more  than  five  hundred 
square  miles  of  it  in  this  and  in  the  neighboring  parish  of 
Plaquemines,  and  some  of  the  inland  bays  or  lakes  are 
many  miles  in  extent. 

The  soil  is  everywhere  a  stiff  mud  rising  less  than 
twenty  inches  above  ordinary  high  tide,  though  here  and 
there  the  waves  of  storms  have  piled  up  long  banks  of 
shells  to  a  height  of  three  or  four  feet.  Nothing  else 
except  low  mangrove  bushes  relieves  the  monotonous  ex- 
panse that  stretches  to  the  horizon.  But  this  is  not 
everywhere  true,  for  once  or  twice  on  the  way  down  to 
the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  an  oysterman's  hut  or 
a  small  canning  factory,  unnaturally  and  monstrously 
imposing  in  its  surroundings,  appears  high  up  on  the 
ends  of  piles.  In  spite  of  all  precautions,  these  buildings 
are  in  a  precarious  position,  for  in  hurricanes  like  those 
of  1893  or  of  1900,  the  whole  region  may  be  covered  by 
angry  water  to  a  depth  of  ten  or  twelve  feet. 

Those  passes  that  serve  as  channels  for  the  tidal  flows 
are  sometimes  deep,  but  in  the  bays  and  quiet  lagoons, 
from  three  to  six  feet  of  water  only,  cover  a  bottom  of 
mud.  The  normal  rise  of  the  tide  is  but  a  few  inches, 
and  very  little  bottom  is  exposed  at  low  water. 

In  spite  of  the  general  atmosphere  of  barrenness  and 
utter  desolation,  the  waters  of  this  country  are  found 
almost  everywhere  to  bear  natural  oyster  beds,  many  of 
which  have  practically  never  been  disturbed.  Some  of 
the  bottom  is  hard  and  otherwise  offers  an  inviting  op- 
portunity for  oyster  planting.  Much  tonging  is  done  on 
some  of  the  natural  deposits,  and  culling  on  the  tonging 
grounds  is  more  generally  practised  in  Louisiana  than  in 


258  Our  Food  Mollusks 

any  other  state.  The  supply  is  thus  in  a  measure  con- 
tinued. Oysters  are  not  found  exposed,  as  in  the  Caro- 
linas  and  Florida,  because  the  normal  fall  of  the  tide  is 
so  slight.  Growth  being  rapid,  clusters  form  in  a  very 
short  time,  but  when  these  are  culled  after  tonging,  the 
beds  produce  large  and  well- formed  oysters.  The  ex- 
tensive waters  of  Lake  Borgne  to  the  north,  into  which 
Lake  Pontchartrain  empties,  are  too  fresh  for  oyster 
growth. 

If  one  will  consult  his  map,  he  will  find,  about  twenty 
miles  to  the  east  of  St.  Bernard  Parish,  and  a  slightly 
greater  distaHce  south  of  the  Mississippi  shore,  a  long, 
crescent-shaped  group  of  islands  known  as  the  Chan- 
deleurs.  These,  with  the  Errol  group  to  the  south  of 
them,  constitute  a  sand-spit  nearly  thirty-five  miles 
long  that  encloses  Chandeleur  and  Isle  au  Breton 
sounds. 

Strange  sensations  also  await  the  explorer  of  these 
uninhabited  and  utterly  lonely  islands.  Climbing  to  the 
top  of  one  of  the  greater  elevations — some  twenty  feet 
above  the  water — he  sees  about  him  a  succession  of 
mountains  and  valleys  of  silicious  sand,  many  of  them 
bearing  mammoth  vines  and  scattered  grasses.  For  some 
reason  that  is  difficult  to  define,  one  seems  to  stand  among 
formations  having  all  the  appearances  of  great  hills,  val- 
leys and  plains,  but  all  in  miniature ;  and  the  vivid  imag- 
ination of  childhood,  lost  and  mourned  by  those  who 
have  had  too  much  to  do  with  realities,  comes  back  un- 
bidden in  a  flood.  Here,  at  least,  in  all  the  world,  it  is 
possible  for  a  day  to  step  back  through  the  years,  and, 
care-free,  to  explore  the  wonders  of  fairy-land. 

On  the  east,  surf  from  the  open  Gulf  breaks  on  a  wide, 
firm  beach,  the  monotony  of  which  is  broken  by  stranded 


The  Gulf  of  Mexico  259 

tree-trunks  floated  out  from  shore,  or  by  the  wreckage  of 
vessels — for  it  is  a  dangerous  region  for  the  sailor. 

On  the  protected  western  side,  the  bottom  is  extremely 
shallow  for  a  mile  or  more,  and  bears  quantities  of  "  eel- 
grass,"  while  on  the  shore  is  a  growth  of  thatch.  One 
experiences  a  feeling  of  insecurity  on  discovering  the 
shells  of  sand-dollars  and  other  aquatic  animals  halfway 
up  the  sides  of  the  sand  hills,  where  they  have  recently 
been  left  by  the  waves  of  a  storm,  and  there  is  at  once  re- 
called that  terrible  night,  never  to  be  forgotten  in  Louisi- 
ana, when  the  gay  summer  colonists  of  Dernier  Isle  were 
surprised  by  a  tropical  hurricane,  and  swept  inland  for  a 
distance  of  many  miles  on  furious  waves  from  the  Gulf. 

So  seldom  are  the  Chandeleur  Islands  visited  that  stilts 
and  other  birds,  pattering  over  their  western  mud-flats, 
are  almost  without  fear,  and  may  be  closely  approached. 

The  hundreds  of  square  miles  of  bottom  in  Chandeleur 
Sound  lie  in  less  than  eighteen  feet  of  water.  Whether 
any  considerable  part  of  it  will  ever  be  available  for 
oyster  culture  cannot  now  be  told,  but  according  to  fish- 
ermen, it  formerly  supported  beds  of  considerable  size. 
It  is  possible  that  here,  where  some  of  the  natural  condi- 
tions seem  to  be  different  from  those  in  the  Gulf,  oyster 
culture  might  be  established.  The  territory  is  so  great, 
and  is  so  conveniently  situated  with  reference  to  mar- 
kets, that  experiments  should  be  made  to  determine  its 
possibilities. 

West  of  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  the  character  of 
the  coast  is  much  like  that  of  the  eastern  side,  for  the  en- 
tire lower  part  of  the  state  many  miles  back  from  the 
water,  is  a  swamp  that  rises  very  little  above  sea  level. 
Here  are  extensive  bays — Barataria,  Timbalier,  and  Ter- 
rebonne — once  the  home  waters  of  the  pirate  La  Fitte, 


260  Our  Food  Mollusks 

a  century  ago  the  terror  of  the  Gulf.  These  bays  are 
now  the  busy  scene  of  a  rapidly  growing  oyster  industry. 

The  most  important  oyster  grounds  of  the  state  are 
found  west  of  the  river  in  Terrebonne  Parish,  but  nearly 
everywhere  in  this  region  they  are  becoming  depleted,  and 
are  giving  way  to  the  more  productive  cultivated  beds. 

The  first  move  toward  true  oyster  culture  has  always 
been  the  transplanting  of  culled  oysters  from  natural 
beds  to  prepared  bottoms  where  they  may  grow.  This 
was  practised  many  years  ago  in  Louisiana  by  the  lugger- 
men,  and  has  been  continued  by  others,  often  on  leased 
ground.  But  true  oyster  culture — the  capture  of  spat 
that  would  otherwise  perish — is  very  easily  accomplished 
in  these  waters,  and  since  about  1885  a  large  number 
who  have  rented  grounds  from  the  state,  have  learned  to 
spread  oyster  shells  for  this  purpose.  With  the  decrease 
of  the  natural  beds,  this  practice  is  growing,  and  prom- 
ises much  for  the  near  future. 

To  the  present  time,  little  effort  has  been  made  to  cul- 
tivate oysters  on  very  soft  bottoms,  of  which  there  are 
great  numbers  situated  where  other  conditions  are  favor- 
able for  oyster  growth.  Such  bottoms  have  been  re- 
claimed in  Long  Island  Sound  by  the  use  of  sand  and 
gravel.  But  the  bottoms  here  are  often  so  soft  and  oozy 
that  it  is  the  common  belief  among  oystermen  that  even 
shells  would  sink  out  of  sight  in  them. 

Experiments  conducted  on  these  bottoms  in  1904  by 
the  writer,  proved  that  this  is  not  true,  and  that  a  firm 
pavement  may  be  constructed  on  the  softest  silt.  In  the 
open  waters  of  the  Gulf,  where  the  mud  was  so  soft  and 
deep  that  a  sounding  pole  was  thrust  into  it  to  a  depth  of 
many  feet  with  no  effort,  and  from  a  boat  under  way,  an 
extensive  foundation  of  shells  was  prepared  for  an  oyster 


The  Gulf  of  Mexico  261 

bed.  A  coating  from  four  to  six  inches  deep  was  found 
to  make  a  firm  and  permanent  foundation.  Experi- 
mental beds  on  ooze  exposed  by  the  tides,  constructed  of 
small  shells,  in  layers  two  or  three  inches  deep,  remained 
in  a  firm  layer  on  top  of  the  mud,  and  without  change, 
for  at  least  a  year. 

One  of  the  most  curious  sights  to  be  witnessed  along 
the  Louisiana  coast  is  the  immense  accumulation  of  shells 
found  rising  above  the  water  at  many  points.  These  are 
of  several  species  of  marine  or  brackish  water  bivalves, 
and  on  account  of  their  small  size,  afford  ideal  material 
for  seed  collecting.  Very  few  oysters  can  attach  to  a 
single  shell,  and,  consequently,  clusters  cannot  form  on 
them.  In  most  cases  but  a  single  oyster  will  develop  on 
each  shell  (Figures  52  and  53). 

To  appreciate  fully  the  great  advantage  that  the 
Louisiana  culturist  might  possess  in  these  shells  if  he 
would  use  them,  it  must  be  stated  that  oyster  growth  in 
these  warm  waters  is  so  rapid  that  a  large  cluster  may 
form  on  an  oyster  shell  in  one  year.  To  assume  a  size 
and  shape  that  will  fit  them  for  market,  these  must  be 
culled  before  further  growth  takes  place.  The  labor  of 
culling  during  the  first  year  at  least  might  be  avoided 
by  the  use  of  these  small  shells.  Their  accumulations 
are  of  great  extent,  and  often  are  so  situated  that  planks 
may  be  extended  from  them  directly  to  the  deck  of  a 
schooner  lying  alongside. 

Yet  this  ideal  cultch  is  used  very  little  in  Louisiana, 
oyster  shells  being  preferred,  perhaps  because  shell  heaps 
at  the  canneries  are  convenient  and  must  be  disposed  of. 
It  is  a  pity  that  they  should  be  used  only  to  pave  streets 
in  New  Orleans  and  Lake  Charles. 

It  is  not  possible  with  data  that  we  now  possess  to 


262  Our  Food  Mollusks 

make  a  definite  statement  of  the  average  rate  of  growth 
of  oysters  in  any  of  the  great  oyster  fields.  One  bay  or 
river  mouth  may  afford  advantages  such  as  food,  that  a 
neighboring  locality  lacks,  and  growth  here  may  be  much 
more  rapid  than  elsewhere.  But  the  general  practice  of 
oystermen  in  Long  Island  Sound  is  to  allow  oysters  to 
grow  four,  or  very  rarely  three  years,  after  the  spat  has 
been  collected. 

Without  doubt,  in  Louisiana  waters,  the  average  time 
required  to  produce  a  marketable  oyster  having  a  length 
of  five  or  six  inches,  is  at  least  a  year  shorter  than  in  the 
northern  field.  Usually  this  size  will  be  attained  in 
three  years  from  the  time  of  attachment,  and  sometimes 
in  two  years.  In  Quarantine  Bay,  whole  beds  have  been 
known  to  develop  in  eight  months,  oysters  averaging 
nearly  three  inches  in  length.  In  Bayou  Coquette,  col- 
lectors have  borne  oysters  more  than  two  inches  long  in 
seven  months.  A  piece  of  rock  in  the  possession  of  the 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Fisheries  bears  forty  or  fifty  shells,  all 
more  than  four  inches  long,  that  had  grown  in  the  waters 
of  Bayou  Schofield  in  twenty-three  months.  In  many 
parts  of  Terrebonne  Parish,  oysters  are  said  to  attain 
marketable  size  in  three  years.  It  is  said  that  in  Bayou 
Cook,  from  which  come  most  of  the  best  oysters,  the 
period  of  growth  is  but  two  years.  So  reliable  and  well 
informed  an  observer  as  Mr.  H.  F.  Moore,  of  the  Bureau 
of  Fisheries,  states  that  he  has  seen  in  Plaquemines 
Parish  "  oysters  six  inches  long  which,  from  known 
data,  could  not  have  been  over  twenty-three  months  old." 
No  comment  is  necessary  on  the  immense  advantage  pos- 
sessed by  the  Louisiana  culturist  in  this  short  growing 
season. 

While  starfish  never  molest  oysters  in  this  field,  the 


FIG.  52.     Shells  of  Area  with  young  oysters  attached.     These 
shells  are  very  numerous  on  parts  of  the  Louisiana  shore. 


FIG.  S3-  Single  oysters  attached  to  shells  of  a  small  clam. 
These  shells  make  ideal  collectors.  They  and  the  shells 
of  .in  allied  bivalve  form  great  collections  all  along  the 
Louisiana  coast. 


The  Gulf  of  Mexico  263 

drumfish  is  often  destructive  in  some  localities.  The 
only  certain  protection  against  it  is  a  stockade  of  pickets 
built  about  the  beds,  and  such  fences  are  often  con- 
structed. It  is  not,  however,  a  general  practice  on  the 
oyster  fields,  and  in  most  places  there  is  little  danger  from 
this  oyster  destroyer. 

If  it  should  ever  be  possible  to  cultivate  oysters  in 
Chandeleur  Sound,  steam  vessels  with  large  dredges 
might  be  employed,  as  in  Long  Island  Sound.  There  is 
immense  advantage  in  being  able  to  gather  large  cargoes 
rapidly,  and  in  all  kinds  of  weather.  One  of  the  disad- 
vantages of  the  shallow  waters  in  which  oysters  are  now 
cultivated  is  that  dredges  can  seldom  be  used,  and  the 
fishing  must  be  done  only  with  tongs. 

Now  and  then — though  at  intervals  of  several  years — 
the  Gulf  coast  is  visited  by  appalling  hurricanes,  that 
shift  the  shallow  bottoms  and  destroy  great  numbers  of 
oyster  beds. 

The  most  serious  menace  to  the  industry  in  Louisiana 
is  the  flooding  of  the  fields  with  fresh  water  from  crev- 
asses in  the  Mississippi  River.  By  consulting  a  map,  it 
will  be  seen  by  the  courses  of  the  waterways,  that  any 
great  break  in  the  Mississippi  levees  below  the  mouth  of 
the  Red  River,  may  threaten  the  oyster  territory  either 
on  the  east  or  west.  The  great  Nita  crevasse  of  1890, 
still  often  referred  to  by  the  oystermen,  poured  its  flood 
southward  through  Blind  River,  Lake  Maurepas,  Lake 
Pontchartrain,  and  Lake  Borgne,  and  freshened  the 
waters  of  St.  Bernard  Parish  for  so  long  a  period  that 
oysters  were  nearly  exterminated  over  an  immense  area. 
The  waters  remained  fresh  for  weeks,  and  the  flood  de- 
posited a  large  quantity  of  sediment.  Other  great 
crevasses  have  occurred,  and  some  Qf  them  it  has  never 


264  Our  Food  Mollusks 

been  possible  to  close.  The  map  shows  how  flood  waters 
from  the  Mississippi  and  the  Red  rivers  may  also  be 
poured  into  the  bays  west  of  the  delta.  It  should  be  said 
that,  in  the  majority  of  instances  of  widespread  destruc- 
tion by  fresh  water,  the  usual  profuse  set  of  young  has 
occurred  during  the  breeding  season  following,  from 
adults  that  have  escaped  destruction  in  deep  depressions 
in  which  the  water  remains  salt.  If  the  much  discussed 
plan  of  improvement  of  the  waterways  of  the  entire  Mis- 
sissippi basin  by  the  federal  government  should  be 
realized,  this  greatest  danger  to  oyster  culture  in  Louisi- 
ana would  disappear — a  fact  that  seems  to  have  at- 
tracted little  or  no  attention. 

The  chief  advantages  possessed  by  the  Louisiana  cul- 
turist  may  thus  be  summarized : — Growth  is  much  more 
rapid  in  the  Gulf  than  elsewhere.  This  is  due  to  the 
unusually  large  supply  of  diatoms  found  in  the  warm 
waters.  They  are  plentiful  enough  to  support  an  enor- 
mous oyster  population.  The  growing  season,  also,  is 
of  long  duration. 

There  is  nowhere  anxiety  lest  the  set  of  spat  should 
fail.  The  collection  of  young  is  much  more  certain  than 
in  a  colder  climate.  The  chief  reason  for  this  probably  is 
that  sudden  and  extreme  declines  of  temperature,  and 
cold  rains,  that  destroy  so  many  swimming  oysters  in 
the  north,  do  not  occur  here  in  the  summer.  Usually  the 
salinity  of  the  water  is  very  favorable  for  reproduction 
over  the  entire  field.  Small  shells,  that  may  be  used  as 
collectors,  are  almost  everywhere  piled  up  on  the  shores. 
Gulf  oysters  have  very  few  natural  enemies,  and  none 
cause  extensive  or  frequent  losses.  Winters  are  mild 
and  short,  so  that  the  gathering  of  oysters  is  never  dif- 
ficult on  account  of  cold. 


The  Gulf  of  Mexico  265 

There  is  already  a  much  greater  demand  than  can  be 
met  by  the  local  supply.  Louisiana  oysters  are  favor- 
ably known  as  far  north  as  Chicago,  and  a  great  market 
is  waiting  in  the  Mississippi  valley,  north  and  south. 
Even  with  present  transportation  facilities,  New  Orleans 
might  readily  obtain  a  large  part  of  the  Pacific  trade  in 
eastern  oysters,  if  the  Gulf  were  made  to  produce  them. 

Little  definite  information  exists  concerning  the  oyster 
territory  or  the  oyster  industry  before  the  year  1898.  In 
that  year  the  state  legislature  requested  the  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Fisheries  to  examine  the  oyster  field.  This  was  done, 
and  in  1902  a  state  Oyster  Commission  was  created. 
This  has  since  been  given  powers  that  have  made  it  the 
most  effective  body  of  its  kind  in  the  country. 

Its  members  receive  adequate  salaries,  and  give  their 
entire  attention  to  the  work  of  building  up  the  oyster  in- 
dustry. It  has  been  made  a  department  of  the  state  gov- 
ernment. It  has  authority  to  sue,  and  may  be  sued.  It 
may  buy,  sell,  or  lease  property,  enact  contracts,  and  do 
anything  necessary  to  enforce  the  oyster  laws.  It  adopts 
by-laws  for  its  own  government  and  that  of  its  em- 
ployees. It  enlarges  and  cares  for  natural  beds,  and 
protects  lessees  of  private  oyster  grounds.  It  determines 
the  limits  of  natural  beds,  and  may  use  its  own  discre- 
tion in  allowing  the  use  of  dredges  on  them.  Its  acts 
are  subject  to  review  by  the  courts.  It  has  police  power, 
and  has  organized  an  extremely  efficient  force.  It  has 
been  granted  large  appropriations.  Practically  all  of  its 
recommendations  have  been  acted  on  promptly  by  the 
legislature.  In  short,  that  body  has  had  the  great  wis- 
dom to  place  the  entire  management  of  the  industry  in  the 
hands  of  a  few  competent  men,  and  to  hold  them  re- 
sponsible for  its  success. 


266  Our  Food  Mollusks 

As  might  be  expected,  their  success  has  been  very 
great.  In  two  years  after  the  appointment  of  the  Com- 
mission, the  number  of  leased  acres  increased  from  2,820 
to  23,303,  and  since  then  has  steadily  grown.  Produc- 
tion, also,  is  now  increasing  rapidly,  and  new  packing 
houses  are  being  established.  The  oyster  laws  are  being 
enforced,  lessees  are  being  protected,  and  the  commission 
reports  that  there  is  "  a  notable  absence  of  any  disposi- 
tion to  violate  the  oyster  law  or  the  regulations  of  this 
Commission."  This  is  all  so  unusual  and  so  refreshing 
that  it  might  well  be  commended  to  the  attention  of  stu- 
dents of  popular  government.  There  is  much  to  be 
learned  from  the  practical  wisdom  of  Louisiana. 

It  should  be  interesting  to  those  who  make  the  laws  of 
some  other  states  to  witness  in  Louisiana  the  subsidence 
of  the  fear  of  an  oyster  monopoly.  This  at  one  time 
was  acute,  but  since  even  corporations — Louisiana  cor- 
porations, it  is  true — have  been  allowed  to  lease  a  thou- 
sand acres,  and  leases  have  been  made  heritable  and 
transferable,  no  indication  of  a  monopoly  has  appeared. 
The  "  poor  man  "  with  ten  acres,  benefits  by  the  improved 
markets  as  he  does  in  Connecticut.  The  fear  of  an 
"  oyster  trust "  is  so  nearly  dead  that  the  time  will  prob- 
ably come  when  outside  capital  will  be  invited,  and  the 
limit  on  leases  extended  or  removed  altogether. 

Leases  are  made  at  a  dollar  an  acre  each  year  for  fif- 
teen years.  For  the  ten  years  following,  the  rental  is 
two  dollars  an  acre  annually.  After  that,  the  value  of 
the  property  shall  be  assessed,  and  such  rental  shall  be 
paid  "  as  conditions  shall  warrant."  There  is  a  tax  of 
three  cents  a  bushel  on  oysters  produced  on  leased 
ground. 

There  is  no  close  season  on  the  leased  grounds,  and  no 


The  Gulf  of  Mexico  267 

restriction  is  placed  on  implements  that  may  be  used  by 
lessees. 

One  admirable  section  of  the  law  is  that  instructing  the 
Oyster  Commission  to  publish  and  distribute  copies  of  the 
act,  and  to  publish  its  rules  and  regulations,  as  they  are 
adopted,  in  its  official  journal,  chosen  from  among  the 
daily  papers  of  New  Orleans. 

Among  other  interesting  provisions  is  that  reserving 
bottoms  for  scientific  experiment  near  the  biologic  sta- 
tion at  Cameron.  The  state  seems  to  have  placed  much 
confidence  in  the  work  of  biologists,  whom  it  has  invited 
to  study  the  natural  conditions  existing  on  its  oyster 
fields. 

In  Texas,  the  most  western  of  the  Gulf  states,  prac- 
tically the  entire  coast  is  bounded  by  a  narrow  water 
zone  that,  in  turn,  is  separated  from  the  Gulf  by  a  low 
bank.  In  many  parts  of  this  confined  area,  conditions 
are  favorable  for  oyster  growth.  One  hundred  and 
forty  square  miles  of  Matagorda  Bay,  probably  compris- 
ing the  best  of  the  natural  oyster  area  of  the  state,  has 
been  surveyed  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Fisheries,  and  its 
scattered  and  limited  beds  have  been  charted.  It  was 
shown  by  the  expert  in  charge  of  the  survey  that  the 
natural  beds  would  supply  only  a  limited  number  of 
oysters.  There  is  every  reason,  however,  to  believe  that 
oyster  culture  might  be  successfully  practised  over  a 
much  greater  area  than  that  occupied  by  the  natural 
growth,  and,  on  the  whole,  the  oyster  laws  are  favorable 
for  its  development. 

One  advanced  feature  of  the  state  oyster  law  is  that 
permitting  any  citizen  of  the  United  States,  or  any  Texas 
corporation,  to  lease  bottoms.  This  approaches  the  legal 
provisions  of  Connecticut.  The  lease,  however,  is  lim- 


268  Our  Food  Mollusks 

ited  to  six  hundred  and  forty  acres.  As  yet  there  have 
been  few  applications  for  oyster  grounds,  though  there 
is  little  opposition  to  the  system. 

It  may  be  expected,  in  view  of  the  growing  demand  for 
oysters,  that  the  shore  of  Texas  will  soon  possess  culti- 
vated beds,  and  though  the  supply  may  not  seek  distant 
markets,  it  may  be  great  enough  for  a  time  to  satisfy  the 
requirements  of  that  rapidly  growing  state,  which,  how- 
ever, is  truly  an  empire  in  itself. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
THE  PACIFIC  FIELD 

NSIDE  waters  are  so  numerous  all  along  the 
Atlantic  coast  that  a  few  short  canals  would 
provide  an  enclosed  navigable  waterway  from 
Massachusetts  Bay  nearly  to  the  South  Caro- 
lina line.  Some  of  the  Gulf  shore  is  similarly  protected 
by  outlying  spits  and  islands.  But  the  Pacific  coast, 
from  the  entrance  to  Puget  Sound  southward  to  Mexico, 
is  entirely  different,  being  straight,  unbroken,  and  un- 
protected. There  are  few  enclosed  bays  or  even  har- 
bors on  this  great  stretch  of  coast,  the  only  extensive 
ones  being  Puget  Sound,  in  Washington,  and  San  Fran- 
cisco Bay,  in  California. 

The  same  species  of  plants  and  animals  are  not  found 
in  Atlantic  and  Pacific,  but  more  or  less  distantly  related 
forms.  The  class  Asteroidea,  of  zoological  classifica- 
tion, for  example,  is  represented  by  several  species  of 
starfish  in  one  ocean,  and  by  somewhat  different  kinds 
in  the  other.  The  eastern  oyster,  Ostrea  virginica,  is  re- 
placed on  the  Pacific  coast  by  another  species  of  the  same 
genus  known  as  Ostrea  lurida.  On  the  Mexican  coast 
are  still  other  species. 

Ostrea  lurida  is  much  smaller  than  the  eastern  oyster, 
and  differs  from  it  also  in  having  a  light,  thin  shell,  and 
in  being  hermaphroditic,  a  condition  in  which  each  in- 
dividual produces  both  male  and  female  cells.  In  the  im- 

269 


270  Our  Food  Mollusks 

portant  commercial  matter  of  taste,  all  oysters  are  much 
alike. 

Several  Atlantic  animals  have  been  introduced  into  the 
Pacific,  and  have  established  themselves.  Among  them 
are  the  shad,  striped  bass,  and  the  soft  or  long  neck 
clam.  For  many  years,  also,  small  eastern  oysters  have 
been  planted  in  the  bays  of  Washington  and  Cali- 
fornia, where  they  grow  to  marketable  size  in  three 
or  four  years.  They,  however,  have  not  become 
established. 

Entering  the  Golden  Gate  in  California,  the  water 
spreads  north  and  south  to  form  San  Francisco  Bay. 
Into  it  flow  many  streams,  some  of  them  large  like  the 
Sacramento  from  the  north.  The  water  is  consequently 
brackish  and  favorable  for  the  growth  of  the  native 
oyster,  which  is  found  here  in  great  numbers.  Perhaps 
because  this  oyster  is  very  prolific  and  because  there  is 
much  crowding  on  the  natural  beds,  it  attains  scarcely 
half  the  size  to  which  it  develops  in  Willapa  Bay,  and 
consequently  is  not  often  marketed. 

In  Puget  Sound  and  Willapa  Bay  in  Washington,  the 
transplanting  or  bedding  of  the  native  oyster  has  become 
an  extensive  industry.  Some  years  ago,  the  state  of 
Washington  set  aside  immense  tracts  in  these  bays,  desig- 
nating them  as  "  Oyster  Reserves."  On  parts  of  these 
were  natural  oyster  beds.  It  was  intended  that  from 
them  oysters  should  be  taken  only  for  the  purpose  of 
planting  on  barren'  bottoms,  and  not  for  immediate 
sale. 

But  the  state  has  not  been  able  to  police  these  grounds 
and  enforce  the  provisions  of  the  laws,  and  has  received 
very  little  revenue  from  licenses  issued  to  tongers.  The 
public  beds  in  Puget  Sound  are  infested  with  starfish, 


The  Pacific  Field  271 

which  the  state  authorities  have  not  attempted  to  destroy, 
and,  as  in  all  similar  cases,  the  bottoms  are  rapidly  be- 
coming depleted. 

As  yet,  true  oyster  culture — the  capture  of  young  on 
collectors,  and  their  subsequent  planting — has  hardly 
been  attempted  in  these  waters.  Instead,  seed  has  been 
obtained  entirely  from  natural  beds,  three  or  four  years 
being  required  for  its  growth.  Much  of  the  planting 
is  done  on  bottoms  that  are  exposed  at  low  water.  The 
capture  of  the  swimming  native  oyster  may  easily  be  ac- 
complished, however,  in  favorable  localities  near  breed- 
ing individuals,  and  with  the  decline  of  the  natural  beds 
the  method  will  undoubtedly  be  resorted  to. 

About  twenty  thousand  acres  of  barren  bottoms  have 
been  sold  to  individuals  or  to  corporations,  but  few  have 
been  planted.  From  them,  seventy  thousand  sacks  of 
native  oysters,  each  containing  about  two  bushels,  are 
marketed  annually.  The  destruction  of  San  Francisco, 
which  had  consumed  a  large  part  of  the  Washington  har- 
vest, temporarily  affected  the  market,  but  as  in  every 
other  oyster  field  in  the  country,  there  is  now  an  increas- 
ing demand  for  this  universally  appreciated  food. 

Live  eastern  oysters  were  first  sent  to  the  Pacific  coast 
at  San  Francisco  about  1870,  on  the  completion  of  the 
first  transcontinental  railroad.  These  were  sometimes 
bedded  in  San  Francisco  Bay,  to  be  removed  for  sale, 
and  were  found  to  thrive.  Afterward  it  became  an 
established  practice  to  ship  small  seed  from  New  York 
for  planting  in  this  bay,  and  the  industry  has  continued 
and  assumed  large  proportions. 

Eastern  oysters  are  usually  planted  on  mud  flats  that 
are  exposed  at  low  tide.  So  placed,  they  may  easily  be 
fenced  in  and  protected  from  the  attacks  of  a  sting-ray 


272  Our  Food  Mollusks 

that    abounds    in    the    bay    during    the   summer.     Seed 
oysters  reach  a  marketable  size  in  three  or  four  years. 

It  was  not  until  1894  that  eastern  oyster  seed  was 
planted  in  Willapa  Bay.  This  shoal  body  of  water  is 
twenty-five  miles  long,  and  has  an  average  width  of  about 
five  miles.  It  has  always  been  a  famous  bedding  place 
for  native  oysters.  Eastern  seed  from  Maryland,  New 
Jersey  and  Long  Island,  planted  here  by  the  U.  S.  Fish 
Commission,  grew  as  well  as  in  San  Francisco  Bay.  A 
hundred  car-loads  of  seed  oysters,  varying  in  size  from  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter, 
are  sometimes  planted  in  a  year.  During  the  last  few 
years  eastern  oysters  have  been  planted  in  Puget  Sound, 
but  not  yet  in  large  numbers. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  freight  charges  on  eastern 
seed  amount  to  five  hundred,  or  at  times  to  more  than 
seven  hundred  dollars  a  car,  the  trade  is  growing  on  the 
Pacific  coast.  Retail  prices  are  necessarily  high. 

It  is  a  fact  of  economic  as  well  as  of  biologic  interest 
that  these  transported  oysters  do  not  often  reproduce  in 
Pacific  waters.  To  the  present  time,  not  a  case  of  at- 
tachment by  a  swimming  eastern  oyster  has  been  ob- 
served in  the  state  of  Washington.  In  1889,  however, 
it  was  discovered  by  an  investigator  of  the  U.  S.  Fish 
Commission  that  they  were  breeding  in  a  few  places  at 
the  south  end  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  and  hopes  were  en- 
tertained that  they  might  become  well  established  there. 
These  hopes  have  not  been  fulfilled. 

The  adverse  condition  in  this  case  is  probably  the  low 
temperature  of  the  water.  The  fact  may  not  be  well 
known  on  the  eastern  coast  that  the  waters  of  northern 
California,  of  Oregon,  and  of  Washington  are,  during 
the  summer,  as  icy  as  those  of  Maine.  There  is  little 


The  Pacific  Field  273 

variation  in  temperature  during  the  year.  In  the 
Atlantic,  a  set  of  spat  is  rarely  obtained  if  the  water  tem- 
perature often  falls  much  below  7O°F.  during  the  breed- 
ing season.  Failure  of  the  set  is  common  in  the  north- 
ern field,  probably  because  of  rapid  declines  in  tempera- 
ture from  cold  summer  rains. 

On  'the  Pacific  coast,  even  in  the  bays,  the  maximum 
summer  temperature  of  the  water  rarely  exceeds  70°,  and 
at  most  places  the  average  is  nearer  60°.  It  is  not  to  be 
expected,  then,  that  eastern  oysters  may  reproduce  in 
these  waters.  But  in  some  of  the  creek  mouths  of  San 
Francisco  Bay,  the  shallow  water  is  kept  warm  by  the 
sun,  and  it  is  in  them  that  reproduction  has  been  ob- 
served. 

Perhaps  it  is  possible  that  the  species  might  be  ac- 
climatized to  a  lower  temperature,  but  this  could  be  ef- 
fected only  in  several  generations.  There  is  no  reason 
to  expect  that  any  constitutional  change  that  might  ac- 
custom any  individual  oyster  to  its  new  surroundings, 
would  restore  its  lost  fertility.  But  it  may  be  that  the 
species  could  again  be  made  fertile  by  following  the 
selection  method  of  breeders  of  domesticated  animals 
and  plants.  After  careful  observation  of  summer  tem- 
perature, bottoms  might  be  selected  over  which  the  mini- 
mum was  somewhat  below  70°.  If  large  numbers  of 
eastern  oysters  were  planted  here,  some  individuals  might 
possibly  be  found  to  possess  the  constitutional  power  of 
breeding  at  a  slightly  lower  temperature  than  that  re- 
quired by  the  majority.  Whether  this  is  true  or  not  in 
this  case  has  never  been  observed,  but  similar  individual 
differences  have  been  found  and  taken  advantage  of  in 
the  cases  of  many  other  organisms. 

If  now  some  individuals  of  the  first  generation  should 


274  Our  Food  Mollusks 

have  produced  offspring,  and  these  were  captured  on  col- 
lectors, this  second  generation  might  be  planted  in  an 
isolated  locality.  If  few  in  number,  the  water  should  be 
of  the  same  temperature  as  before.  If  numerous,  they 
might  be  placed  in  slightly  colder  water.  It  might  be 
assumed,  from  analogous  cases  observed  in  other  organ- 
sims,  that  some  of  the  individuals  of  this  second  gen- 
eration would  exhibit  a  still  greater  power  to  breed  in  a 
low  temperature  than  that  possessed  by  their  parents. 
In  water  of  the  same  temperature  as  that  in  the  first  ex- 
periment, also,  the  average  fertility  would  have  become 
greater. 

In  the  same  manner,  the  third  generation,  if  numerous 
in  individuals,  could  be  planted  in  still  colder  water.  Per- 
haps only  a  few  of  these  could  breed,  but  if  any  were  able 
to  do  so,  the  offspring  again  would  exhibit  the  power  to 
withstand  the  increasing  cold,  and  this  might  be  carried 
on  until  all  surviving  individuals  would  be  able  to  propa- 
gate anywhere  in  the  cold  Pacific  coast  waters. 

Whether  such  an  experiment  would  succeed,  cannot  be 
predicted.  Much  would  depend  on  the  judgment  of  the 
experimenter  and  on  the  facilities  at  his  command.  But 
on  account  of  the  superiority  of  the  eastern  oyster  as  a 
food  mollusk,  it  may  be  an  experiment  worth  a  trial. 

The  production  of  native  and  Atlantic  oysters  in  Wil- 
lapa  Bay  and  Puget  Sound  is  increasing  rapidly.  The 
red-blooded  generation  of  men  that  has  made  this  won- 
derful region  its  home,  is  losing  no  opportunity  to 
develop  its  natural  resources.  It  is  said  that  the  annual 
profits  on  some  oyster  farms  have  reached  a  thousand 
dollars  an  acre.  Such  achievements  have  naturally  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  investors.  Numerous  stock  com- 
panies have  been  formed,  and  have  purchased  barren 


The  Pacific  Field  275 

bottoms.  In  many  cases,  after  the  manner  of  modern 
business,  stock  in  these  companies  has  been  greatly 
over-capitalized.  Some  companies  have  sold  stock  and 
have  failed  even  to  begin  to  operate.  Most  failures  have 
resulted  from  the  fact  that  no  attention  has  been  given 
to  the  habits  of  the  oysters,  or  to  biological  conditions 
existing  over  the  bottoms  purchased. 

But  where  intelligence  has  united  with  an  honest  desire 
to  succeed,  large  dividends  have  been  paid  to  stockhold- 
ers by  many  companies,  and  the  time  probably  is  not  far 
distant  when  the  available  bottoms  will  be  made  to  pro- 
duce a  large  harvest. 

Several  years  ago  the  important  suggestion  was  made 
that  the  large  oyster  cultivated  in  Japan  might  be  intro- 
duced on  our  Pacific  coast.  It  is  a  larger  and  better 
oyster  than  the  native  form.  Neither  state  nor  federal 
authorities  have  performed  the  experiment,  but  in- 
dividuals have  made  several  attempts  in  the  state  of 
Washington.  What  successes  they  have  attained,  how- 
ever, have  not  been  made  public. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE   SOFT  CLAM— DISTRIBUTION  AND 
CONDITIONS  CONTROLLING  IT 

INCE  the  earliest  times  the  soft,  or  long  neck 
clam  has  held  a  place  in  public  esteem  on  the 
north  Atlantic  coast  above  all  food  mollusks 
but  the  oyster,  and  in  recent  years  it  has  be- 
come even  more  highly  prized  than  formerly.  One 
curious  reason  for  this  growing  appreciation  is  the  fact 
that  it  is  becoming  scarce.  It  has  always  been  observed 
that  a  leading  characteristic  of  human  nature  is  to  desire 
most  strongly  anything  that  is  denied.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  abundant  things  are  not  often  esteemed.  The 
flounder,  very  abundant  on  the  north  Atlantic  coast,  is 
one  of  the  finest  of  salt  water  fishes,  yet  the  native  of  the 
Maine  shore  will  seldom  use  it  on  his  table  if  a  morning 
of  hard  labor  will  bring  him  a  tough  and  tasteless  cod 
or  haddock.  He  may  catch  the  flounder  without  effort 
at  his  dock  on  any  rising  tide,  but  must  go  outside  and 
fish  patiently  for  his  cod. 

All  along  the  New  England  shore,  the  soft  clam  was 
once  extremely  abundant,  as  we  learn  from  the  quaint 
records  of  the  early  colonists.  Well  into  the  nineteenth 
century,  beaches  and  flats  continued  to  be  crowded 
with  them.  With  the  growth  of  the  fisheries,  they  were 
dug  in  increasing  numbers  for  bait,  and  some  were  used 
for  food.  They  have  continued  to  be  valuable  chiefly  as 
fish  bait,  but  during  the  last  decade,  especially,  the  deli- 

276 


The  Soft  Clam  277 

cious  clam  chowder  has  become  popular,  and  now,  a 
hundred  miles  inland  from  the  New  England  shore,  no 
outing  of  a  Mystic  Order  or  Barber's  Picnic  is  complete 
without  its  clam  bake,  in  which  both  soft  and  hard  clams 
are  used.  When  one  has  the  time  for  it,  nothing  on  the 
bill  of  fare  of  a  restaurant  is  more  tempting  than  the 
dish  of  steamed  soft  clams  with  the  cup  of  melted 
butter. 

From  the  time  when  Captain  John  Smith  wrote,  "  You 
shall  scarce  find  any  Baye,  Shallow  Shore  or  Cove  of 
Sand,  wyere  you  may  not  take  many  Clampes,"  to  a  quar- 
ter of  a  century  ago,  many  New  England  farmers  living 
near  the  shore  made  it  a  practice  to  fatten  their  hogs  on 
clams. 

Though  the  soft  clam  is  sometimes  found  below  the 
low  water  line,  it  usually  lies  buried  several  inches  be- 
neath the  surface  of  bottoms  that  are  exposed  at  low  tide. 
It  is  found  on  narrow  beaches,  where  only  a  few  yards 
of  bottom  are  uncovered,  but  the  larger  beds  are  situated 
on  great  flats.  There  are  many  places  on  the  New  Eng- 
land coast  where  the  low  tide  exposes  hundreds  of  acres 
of  continuous  flats,  and  most  of  these  at  one  time  bore 
enormous  beds  of  clams.  It  seems  incredible  that  dig- 
ging alone  could  have  destroyed  them,  and  yet  without 
question,  this  is  almost  the  sole  cause  of  the  nearly  com- 
plete destruction  that  has  occurred  on  almost  all  of  these 
immense  beds.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  an  inexhausti- 
ble supply  of  organisms  useful  to  man. 

In  Massachusetts,  extensive  flats  are  perhaps  more 
numerous  than  in  other  New  England  states.  From  the 
mouth  of  the  Merrimac  River  an  almost  continuous  flat 
extends  southward  to  Gloucester,  a  distance  of  fifteen 
miles.  In  Boston  Harbor  and  the  other  bays  connected 


278  Our  Food  Mollusks 

with  it  on  the  south,  miles  of  flats  are  exposed  at  low 
tide,  and  one  may  stand  at  Plymouth  and  look  north- 
ward toward  Duxbury  on  to  a  flat  that  stretches  away  for 
nearly  seven  miles,  and  is  approximately  four  and  a  half 
miles  wide. 

Only  a  few  decades  ago,  a  very  large  part  of  these 
immense  areas  bore  clams.  Many  are  still  taken  near 
Newburyport  on  the  Merrimac,  and  near  Boston,  but 
the  famous  Duxbury  and  Plymouth  flat  is  practically  un- 
productive. Less  extensive  areas,  that  formerly  pro- 
duced clams,  are  now  barren  almost  without  exception. 

For  several  years  the  same  has  been  true  of  Con- 
necticut and  Rhode  Island,  and  the  market  has  depended 
on  the  state  of  Maine  for  its  supply.  Here  the  shore  is 
high  and  rocky,  and  beaches  and  flats  where  clams  may 
grow  are  comparatively  few  and  small.  As  the  Maine 
clam  beds  had  been  little  dug  until  recently,  they  produced 
a  large  supply  for  a  few  seasons,  but  now  are  far  on  the 
way  to  destruction.  Neither  ice  and  the  extreme  cold 
of  the  long  winter,  nor  the  close  season  during  the  three 
summer  months,  that  has  been  in  force  for  a  number  of 
years,  has  prevented  the  rapid  decline  of  the  industry  in 
Maine. 

Outside  of  New  England,  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  the 
soft  clam  has  never  been  very  abundant,  though  many 
were  found  about  Long  Island  and  in  the  New  Jersey 
bays.  It  is  essentially  a  cold  water  form,  and  the  south- 
ern limit  of  its  range  is  the  coast  of  South  Carolina.  It 
is  found  in  parts  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  but  is  there  used  as 
food  only  by  the  poorer  residents  of  the  shore.  From 
Maine  it  extends  northward  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  where 
the  seal,  walrus,  and  polar  bear  sometimes  feed  on  it.  It 
is  also  found  on  the  northern  coasts  of  Europe  and  Asia. 


The  Soft  Clam  279 

It  is  in  New  England  that  the  soft  clam  is  most  prized, 
and  during  the  cold  months  it  is  marketed  alive  in  the  in- 
terior towns  as  well  as  on  the  coast.  It  does  not  live  long 
out  of  water  in  warm  weather,  but  in  a  temperature  near 
the  freezing  point,  will  keep  alive  for  weeks.  Near  the 
shore  it  is  eaten  during  the  summer,  steamed  and  baked 
arid  in  chowders.  Immense  numbers  are  cooked  and 
canned,  suffering  much  less  change  of  flavor  in  the 
process  than  oysters  do,  and  the  solid  "  meats "  and 
chowders  thus  prepared  are  shipped  to  all  the  northern 
states.  Recently,  also,  "  clam  juice,"  the  mucus  drained, 
from  the  bodies  of  shucked  clams,  has  been  canned  or 
bottled,  and  is  widely  used  as  a  broth,  especially  by  in- 
valids, for  with  most  persons  it  is  readily  digested,  and 
its  flavor  is  pleasant. 

Exactly  as  in  the  case  of  the  oyster,  this,  one  of  the 
most  valuable  of  marine  foods,  has  so  nearly  approached 
destruction  that  it  is  time  to  plan  for  its  future  produc- 
tion by  artificial  means.  By  aiding  nature,  the  shores 
have  been  made  to  produce  more  and  better  oysters  than 
they  ever  bore  when  uncared  for  by  man.  As  yet,  clam 
culture  has  not  been  practised  on  a  commercial  scale, 
but  for  a  number  of  years  the  preliminary  study  of  the 
creature's  life  history  and  habits  has  been  carried  on  un- 
der the  auspices  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Fisheries,  and 
by  the  state  commissions  of  Massachusetts  and  Rhode 
Island,  and  the  result,  as  was  expected,  is  that  a  method 
of  culture  has  been  devised  and  tested,  and  has  proved 
to  be  entirely  successful.  Not  only  is  this  true,  but  it  has 
proved  to  be  very  much  easier  and  cheaper  to  rear  the 
soft  clam  than  the  oyster,  as  will  be  shown.  When  the 
conservative  New  England  states  become  sufficiently 
aroused  to  repeal  their  antiquated  and  absurd  colonial 


280  Our  Food  Mollusks 

laws  governing  beach  rights,  and  are  ready  to  formulate 
new  ones  giving  irrevocable  titles  to  clam  bottoms,  the 
clam  industry  will  quickly  become  established  on  a  safe 
basis,  and  its  growth  will  be  rapid.  This  battle  for 
property  rights  on  the  shore,  and  for  protection,  has 
been  fought  and  won  by  the  oystermen,  and  to  the  satis- 
faction of  all;  and  it  must  be  fought  in  the  same  way  by 
the  prospective  clam  culturists.  The  result  will  be  the 
same,  and  immense  wealth  will  be  produced  from  lands 
now  entirely  barren  and  useless. 

Common  names  given  to  plants  and  animals  are  local, 
while  the  technical  or  "  scientific  names "  that  often 
cause  so  much  popular  amusement  by  their  length  or  un- 
familiar sound,  are  universal  names.  A  form  is  often 
given  one  common  name  in  one  locality,  and  others  else- 
where. The  large  mouthed  black  bass,  for  example,  is 
also  called  the  Oswego  bass  in  the  North,  while  the  same 
fish  is  known  as  the  trout  in  some  of  the  southern  states. 
At  least  thirty  other  common  names  are  given  to  this 
fish  in  different  localities.  Along  the  shore,  the  name 
dogfish  refers  to  a  species  of  shark,  while  inland  it  desig- 
nates a  very  distantly  related  form.  The  lay  reader  may 
readily  appreciate  the  necessity  of  a  technical  and  uni- 
versally employed  system  for  the  naming  of  a  species,  if 
he  will  consider  the  case  of  the  clam.  The  name  clam 
north  of  Cape  Cod  usually  refers  simply  to  Mya  arenaria, 
though  it  may,  in  some  localities,  designate  Mactra 
solidissima,  the  sea  clam.  From  Rhode  Island  to  the 
Carolinas  the  term  might  refer  not  only  to  Mya  and 
Venus  (the  little  neck,  hard  clam,  or  quahaug),  but  to 
half  a  dozen  allied  forms.  From  Florida  to  Texas, 
Venus,  Pecten  (the  scallop),  Pholas,  Gnathodon,  and 
several  others  are  "  clarns."  Not  only  does  one  term 


The  Soft  Clam  281 

refer  to  many  forms,  but  a  single  form  may  have  several 
names.  Mya,  in  different  localities,  is  known  as  the 
clam,  the  soft  clam,  the  long  neck,  long  clam,  squirt  clam, 
and  in  England  as  the  sand  gasper,  and  old  maid.  In 
France,  Norway,  Korea,  and  Japan,  it  of  course  has 
many  other  names.  To  use  only  vernacular  names  in 
zoological  writings  evidently  would  lead  to  the  utmost 
confusion,  so  biologists  the  world  over  employ  a  com- 
mon nomenclature,  and  when  an  English  book  or  paper 
refers  to  Mya  arenaria,  the  Japanese  student  who  reads 
it  has  no  doubt  as  to  the  species  that  is  meant. 

Each  species  is  given  two  names,  the  first  or  generic, 
being  a  family  name,  and  the  second  a  species  name.  In 
New  England  waters  we  have  two  scallops,  closely  re- 
lated, but  differing  in  some  characters.  The  generic  or 
family  name  of  these  is  Pecten  (begun  with  a  capital), 
and  the  two  species  are  distinguished  as  Pecten  tenuicos- 
tatus  (the  species  name  begun  with  a  small  letter)  and 
Pecten  irradians. 

With  this  lengthy  explanation,  we  may  consider  se- 
curely some  of  the  habits  of  Mya  arenaria — or  Mya  for 
short,  for  there  are  no  other  species  on  our  shores  with 
which  it  is  apt  to  be  confused;  or  if,  from  force  of  habit, 
we  return  to  "  clam,"  the  name  at  present  is  to  mean 
Mya. 

Mya  spends  the  greater  part  of  its  life  buried  in  the 
mud  or  sand.  Large  individuals  sometimes  burrow  to  a 
depth  of  more  than  a  foot.  Food  and  oxygen  must 
continually  be  gotten  from  the  water,  so  the  creature 
reaches  up  to  it  by  means  of  its  siphon  tubes,  the  ends  of 
which  may  be  seen  when  the  bottom  is  nearly  exposed. 
When  the  water  is  quite  gone,  these  siphon  ends  are 
slightly  retracted  from  the  surface,  and  leave  a  depression 


282  Our  Food  Mollusks 

or  hole.  By  the  size  and  number  of  these  pits,  the  dig- 
ger may  judge  whether  his  labor  is  likely  to  be  worth 
while. 

Such  a  bottom  is  well  illustrated  by  Figure  54,  where 
individuals  happen  to  be  very  numerous.  Though  most 
of  the  pits  are  relatively  large,  one  cannot  always  be  cer- 
tain that  all  clams  forming  them  are  also  large;  for  often 
a  pit  is  used  by  several  individuals  in  common.  These 
lie  at  different  depths  according  to  size,  the  larger  occu- 
pying the  lower  levels.  This  distribution  allows  an  im- 
mense number  of  clams  to  crowd  together  where  there  is 
food  enough  to  support  them  all.  The  clams  shown  in 
Figure  55,  for  example,  were  all  dug  from  beneath  a 
single  square  foot  of  a  prolific  bed. 

The  bottom  in  which  clams  burrow  is  not  always 
muddy.  Most  often  it  is  made  up  largely  of  sand  mixed 
with  mud  or  clay,  and  at  times  they  are  found  in  al- 
most clear  sand.  In  the  latter  case  the  shells,  instead  of 
being  discolored  as  in  muddy  bottoms,  are  pure  white. 
In  some  localities,  usually  on  sandy  beaches,  lime  is  not 
abundant,  and  shells  are  thin.  Such  clams  are  known  as 
"  paper  shells." 

When  a  clam  bed  is  dug  frequently,  many  are  killed 
by  the  fork  or  hoe,  and  subsequently  become  covered. 
Their  decaying  bodies  stain  the  surrounding  sand  a 
pitchy  black,  and  give  it  an  offensive  odor,  so  that  clam 
digging  is  not  always  a  pleasant  occupation.  If  clams 
are  very  closely  crowded,  especially  where  tide  currents 
are  sluggish,  the  decay  of  several  bodies  leads  to  the 
death  of  others,  indirectly  by  the  formation  of  com- 
pounds that  eat  through  the  lime  of  the  shells,  and  ap- 
parently also  directly  by  poisoning  or  infection. 

Mya  sometimes  lodges  and  burrows  in  places  quite  in- 


FIG.  54.  Holes  of  long-neck  clams  very  thickly  set  in  a  beach. 
From  a  Report  of  the  Mass.  Fish  and  Game  Commission 
by  D.  L.  Belding. 


FIG.  55.  Long-neck  clams  dug  from  beneath  one  square  foot 
of  a  flat.  Such  a  yield  is  very  unusual.  The  ruler  has  a 
length  of  six  inches.  From  a  Report  of  the  Mass.  Fish  and 
Game  Commission,  by  J.  R.  Stevenson. 


The  Soft  Glam  283 

accessible  to  the  clammer.  Beaches  so  covered  with  large 
stones  that  the  ground  can  be  dug  only  with  great  labor, 
often  hide  clams  in  large  numbers.  They  also  settle  and 
burrow  among  the  thatch  plants  near  the  high  water 
mark,  and  are  safe  in  the  dense  feltwork  of  roots. 

It  is  interesting  to  watch  an  expert  clammer  at  his 
back-breaking  work,  and  to  observe  its  effect  on  the  clams 
that  remain  where  the  bottom  has  been  disturbed.  The 
implement  used  in  digging  is  a  short  fork  with  four  or 
five  tines  bent  at  right  angles  to  the  handle.  This  is 
forced  down  with  one  hand  placed  near  the  head,  and 
the  dirt  is  thrown  back  between  the  digger's  feet.  In  this 
way,  clams  too  small  to  be  placed  in  the  basket  are  cov- 
ered with  loose  dirt  or  left  exposed. 

When  the  tide  comes  in,  the  dirt  piles  are  leveled  some- 
what. As  soon  as  the  buried  clams  feel  the  water,  they 
right  themselves  so  as  to  bring  the  posterior  ends  of  the 
shells  upward,  and  push  the  fleshy  siphon  tube  toward 
the  water,  which  few  of  them  fail  to  reach,  unless 
severely  injured.  It  appears  from  this  that  no  harm  is 
done  the  survivors  when  a  clam  bed  is  dug,  except  the 
unfortunate  individuals  that  have  accidentally  been 
crushed  by  the  fork.  Indeed,  they  are  benefited  by  the 
removal  of  competitors  for  food,  and  by  the  partial  wash- 
ing and  purification  of  the  bottom  in  which  they  lie. 

But  what  becomes  of  the  unfortunates  that  are  re- 
jected by  the  clammer  and  left  on  the  surface?  Some  of 
them  may  be  nearly  three  inches  long.  Smaller  ones 
will  usually  be  numerous,  and  if  it  is  summer,  a  careful 
examination  may  reveal  individuals  a  quarter,  an  eighth, 
a  twentieth  of  an  inch  long,  and  even  so  small  as  hardly 
to  be  distinguished  from  sand  grains.  These  lie  without 
movement  until  touched  by  the  water,  and  if  the  oppor- 


284  Our  Food  Mollusks 

tunity  presents  itself  the  larger  ones  may  be  seized  by 
herring  gulls,  carried  into  the  air,  and  dropped  on  rocks, 
in  order  lo  break  the  shells. 

As  soon  as  the  water  comes,  all  the  uninjured  ones  be- 
come active  and  attempt  to  burrow  into  the  bottom. 
This  is  accomplished  by  the  fleshy  foot,  which  is  thrust 
out  from  between  the  shell  valves  near  their  anterior 
ends.  Because  the  foot  is  relatively  very  large  and  ex- 
tensible in  smaller  individuals,  those  between  one-eighth 
and  half  an  inch  long  cover  themselves  in  a  very  few 
minutes.  With  a  foot  relatively  smaller,  clams  from 
one  to  two  inches  long  require  from  half  to  three-quar- 
ters of  an  hour  to  effect  a  lodgment,  but  they  reach  the 
usual  depth  of  several  inches  only  after  long-continued 
effort.  Very  large  clams  are  able  to  project  the  foot  so 
short  a  distance  that  they  are  often  not  able  even  to 
touch  the  ground  with  it,  and  after  a  brief  effort  to  do  so, 
close  the  shell  and  lie  helpless  until  destroyed  by  crabs 
and  fishes,  or  by  birds  and  mammals,  that  pick  up  a  liv- 
ing on  the  shore  at  low  tide. 

When  the  human  factor  is  left  out  of  the  account,  the 
life  of  the  adult  clam  appears  to  be  as  monotonous  and 
uneventful — "  happy,"  most  commenters  have  it — as  pos- 
sible. After  reaching  maturity,  the  creature,  if  undis- 
turbed, never  leaves  its  burrow,  being  quite  unable  to 
do  so.  Its  early  life,  however,  like  that  of  the  oyster, 
is  so  full  of  adventure  that  not  one  in  millions  attains  the 
safety  of  the  bottom. 

Like  all  other  organisms,  Mya  requires  for  its  ex- 
istence many  conditions  of  a  precise  and  definite  sort.  By 
long  experience  and  observation  the  oyster  culturist  has 
learned  that  the  oyster  will  grow  and  reproduce  itself 
only  in  water  of  a  certain  density  and  temperature,  and 


The  Soft  Clam  285 

on  bottoms  bearing  clean  objects  for  the  attachment  of 
the  young.  Some  of  these  same  conditions  are  also  re- 
quired by  Mya,  but  many  are  different.  The  more  im- 
portant ones  that  have  been  observed,  may  be  men- 
tioned briefly. 

Even  on  a  flat  that  has  not  been  greatly  modified  by 
man,  it  will  be  seen  that  clams  do  not  grow  everywhere. 
A  little  observation  may  reveal  the  reason,  or  reasons,  for 
the  existence  of  these  barren  patches.  Perhaps  ripple 
marks  have  been  left  here  by  the  retreating  tide.  That 
means  that  the  surface  sand  is  loose,  and  shifts  easily 
under  the  action  of  waves  or  currents.  Now  if  clams 
were  planted  on  such  a  bottom,  it  would  be  found  that 
when  sand  grains,  carried  by  the  water,  touched  the 
sensory  tentacles  at  the  end  of  the  incurrent  siphon  open- 
ing, the  whole  organ  would  be  withdrawn  for  a  greater 
or  less  distance  into  the  burrow.  Into  the  pit  thus  left, 
the  sand  gradually  settles,  and  is  densely  packed.  Ap- 
parently clams  are  not  able  to  push  this  sand  out.  It  is 
not  so  easy  a  task  as  that  of  pushing  the  siphons  through 
loose  sand  or  mud  piled  up  by  the  clam  digger  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  and  the  creatures  are  smothered. 

Therefore,  if  one  is  to  become  a  clam  culturist,  one 
of  the  first  things  he  must  do  is  to  select  a  bottom  for 
his  clam  bed  that  has  a  tenacious  soil.  Even  when  he 
has  found  a  bottom  that  does  not  shift  under  ordinary 
conditions,  he  should  remember  that  great  gales,  that 
may  be  expected  from  definite  directions,  may  tear  it  up 
if  it  is  in  a  position  to  be  exposed  to  them.  The  No- 
vember gale  of  1898,  from  which  time  is  sometimes  reck- 
oned on  the  New  England  coast,  made  many  remarkable 
changes  fn  clam  flats  all  along  the  shore.  Many  beds 
were  overwhelmed  with  sand  or  smothered  with  eel-grass 


286  Our  Food  Mollusks 

and  mud,  and  most  of  these  were  permanently  destroyed. 
Storms  of  such  magnitude  occur  only  once  in  a  life- 
time, but  more  common  ones,  if  less  terrible,  are  often 
destructive. 

Soil  is  rendered  tenacious  in  several  ways.  First, 
when  sand  is  found  to  be  mixed  with  fine  sediments,  its 
grains  are  often  held  together  by  this  cementing,  sub- 
stance. Clay,  the  finest  of  sediments,  is  very  resistant 
to  the  erosive  action  of  water,  and  is  often  found  on 
flats  and  beaches.  Another  important  agency  in  render- 
ing the  surface  tenacious,  and  thus  preventing  the  shift- 
ing of  particles,  is  the  growth  of  algae,  which  forms  a 
close,  thin  mat  over  some  surfaces.  The  presence  of 
this  dark,  green  crust  gives  a  flakey  or  cake-like  ap- 
pearance to  the  bottom.  The  plants  do  not  extend  deep 
into  the  sand,  but  bind  the  surface  grains  closely  enough 
to  prevent  their  movement  even  in  strong  currents.  The 
growth  of  algae  seems  to  be  best  where  tides  move  with 
some  force,  and  such  a  combination  of  firm  bottom  and 
fairly  strong  currents,  bearing  abundant  food,  affords 
the  best  conditions  for  clam  growth.  When  such  a  bed 
is  dug,  the  coating  of  algae  again  forms  over  the  surface 
within  a  very  short  time. 

Again,  under  natural  conditions,  one  observes  that 
sometimes  a  growth  of  thatch  plants  will  convert  a  waste 
of  sand  into  a  clam  bed.  Thatch  is  found  on  many  flats 
between  tide  lines.  The  plants  grow  close  together,  their 
blades  rising  to  a  height  of  two  or  three  feet,  and  their 
foots  forming  a  feltwork  beneath  the  surface.  In  this 
mass  of  vegetation,  clams  are  often  abundant,  even  when 
the  soil  is  almost  pure  sand  and  the  currents  rapid.  They 
are  able  to  establish  themselves  because  the  plants  pre- 
vent a  shifting  of  sand.  On  account  of  the  wire-like 


The  Soft  Clam  287 

roots,  it  is  difficult  to  dig  these  tracts,  but  in  such  beds 
there  is  preserved  a  great  number  of  breeding  individuals 
that  may  restock  neighboring  beds  rendered  barren  by 
excessive  digging. 

Mya,  like  the  oyster  and  all  other  lamellibranchs  or  bi- 
valves, feeds  almost  entirely  on  diatoms  that  are  carried 
in  countless  numbers  by  the  brackish  tide  currents. 
Other  conditions  being  favorable,  the  number  of  clams 
that  may  exist  on  any  area,  depends  on  the  amount  of 
food  that  they  are  able  to  obtain.  It  is  evident,  also,  that 
the  quantity  of  nourishment  will  depend  on  the  amount 
of  water  that  passes  over  the  bed,  as  Mobius,  the  Dutch 
biologist,  pointed  out  many  years  ago.  Hence  a  tide 
current  passing  over  a  bottom  that  is  firm  enough  to  be 
undisturbed  by  it,  is  more  conducive  to  rapid  growth  than 
quiet  water.  This  theoretical  assumption  has  been 
abundantly  proved  by  experiments  with  Mya,  as  with  the 
oyster.  Rapidity  of  current,  within  certain  limits,  de- 
termines, in  large  measure,  the  number  of  clams  that 
may  exist  on  a  given  area,  and  also  the  rate  of  their 
growth.  So,  in  selecting  a  bed  for  artificial  culture,  a 
bottom  should  be  chosen  over  which  there  is  a  free  move- 
ment of  water. 

An  interesting  and  suggestive  condition  existing  on 
most  clam  flats,  is  found  in  the  close  crowding  of  in- 
dividuals over  certain  areas.  If  such  a  tract  is  kept  un- 
der observation,  it  will  sometimes  be  found  that,  for 
years,  the  numbers  remain  nearly  constant,  while  growth 
seems  to  have  ceased,  and  there  seem  never  to  be  any  but 
small  clams.  Food  is  sufficient  for  the  existence  of  a 
certain  number,  each  apparently  being  able  to  get  its 
share,  but  none  obtaining  enough  for  growth.  Such  a 
balance  has  often  been  observed. 


288  Our  Food  Mollusks 

Experiments  on  such  dense  segregations  of  clams  have 
also  revealed  the  fact  that  if  numbers  are  reduced  by  dig- 
ging, the  remaining  individuals  begin  to  grow.  The 
conclusion  is  that  the  judicious  and  intelligent  digging 
of  a  clam  bed  is  beneficial  to  it.  All  clammers  will  agree 
with  this  statement.  It  is  the  same  condition  that  all  are 
familiar  with  in  a  garden  of  vegetables.  Lettuce  plants 
or  radishes  will  fail  to  develop  if  too  closely  crowded.  A 
densely  planted  bed  must  be  thinned  in  order  to  do  well. 
The  real  difficulty  on  our  natural  clam  beds  has  been 
that  no  one  has  cared  to  thin  the  garden  and  transplant 
the  superfluous  individuals  on  barren  ground  for  fear 
he  would  receive  no  return  for  his  labor;  and  this  fear,  of 
course,  has  its  justification.  Such  an  improvement  over 
the  process  of  nature  would  be  effected  if  the  clammer 
were  given  the  same  lawful  right  to  a  bit  of  beach  that 
he  has  to  his  vegetable  garden,  or  that  the  oysterman 
has  finally  succeeded  in  obtaining  in  the  deeper  water 
of  many  of  the  coast  states  for  his  oyster  beds.  It  is  a 
short-sighted  policy  that  denies  such  rights  to  citizens 
who  desire  to  make  productive,  tracts  that  are  now  waste 
places. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  one  of  the  most  important 
conditions  governing  the  existence  of  the  oyster  is  the 
salinity  of  the  water.  The  process  of  reproduction  espe- 
cially, depends  on  a  proper  degree  of  saltness,  and  its 
range  apparently  is  confined  within  rather  narrow  limits. 
With  Mya,  these  limits  are  very  much  wider.  Clams 
will  grow  and  reproduce  normally  in  water  almost  as  salt 
as  that  of  the  open  sea,  as  well  as  in  that  which  is  nearly 
fresh.  The  limits  of  salinity  where  this  has  been  ob- 
served are  1.024  and  1.005,  these  being  the  averages  of 
several  observations  made  during  the  summer  while  re- 


The  Soft  Clam  289 

production  was  occurring.  Not  only  is  this  true,  but  it 
has  been  shown  by  experiment  that  clams  may  be  trans- 
planted from  waters  of  one  of  these  extremes  to  the  other 
apparently  without  being  in  the  least  affected  by  the 
change.  In  this  respect,  as  in  others,  the  artificial  culture 
of  clams  will  prove  to  be  much  simpler  than  the  culture 
of  oysters. 

Enemies  of  the  adult  clam  are  few.  It  is  more  dif- 
ficult to  gather  a  bushel  of  seed  clams  than  of  seed 
oysters,  but  when  the  former  have  attained  a  lodgment 
in  the  bottom  they  are  safe  from  all  foes,  while  the  latter 
are  never  entirely  safe.  On  a  few  occasions,  snail-like 
mollusks  have  been  observed  to  dig  two  or  three  inches 
beneath  the  surface  of  a  clam  flat,  and  to  devour  im- 
bedded clams,  but  not  one  shell  in  thousands  dug 
from  clam  beds  will  show  the  hole  drilled  by  these  ani- 
mals. There  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  any  other  ani- 
mal ever  attacks  them  in  their  burrows.  The  very 
young,  however,  before  they  are  able  to  cover  themselves, 
are  preyed  on  by  several  forms. 

It  will  therefore  be  necessary  for  the  clam  culturist  to 
give  close  attention  to  the  character  of  the  bottom  and 
to  tide  currents,  when  selecting  grounds  for  his  opera- 
tions. In  many  cases  the  existence  of  proper  conditions 
will  be  proved  by  the  presence  of  natural  beds;  but  on 
many  tracts  now  barren  all  natural  requirements  are  met, 
and  all  that  is  needed  is  the  planting  of  seed  clams.  To 
be  able  to  recognize  such  areas  will,  obviously,  be  of 
great  advantage.  Unfavorable  conditions  on  other  bot- 
toms also  may  be  overcome.  Even  shifting  sand  might 
perhaps  be  reclaimed  by  a  covering  of  firmer  soil.  The 
oyster  culturist  has  several  such  achievements  to  his 
credit. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
THE  LIFE  HISTORY  OF  THE  SOFT  CLAM 

N  Mya,  as  in  the  oyster  of  our  Atlantic  coast, 
the  sexes  are  separate.  South  of  Cape  Cod 
the  breeding  season  begins  about  the  middle 
of  June,  reaches  its  height  during  the  last  two 
weeks  of  July,  and  continues  until  September.  North 
of  Cape  Cod  the  season  begins  somewhat  later,  probably 
on  account  of  the  difference  in  temperature. 

As  in  most  other  bivalves,  male  and  female  cells  are 
extruded  into  the  water,  where  they  unite.  As  might  be 
expected,  the  early  stages  of  development  are  similar 
to  those  of  the  oyster,  resulting  in  the  formation  of  a 
swimming  embryo  that  rotates  spirally  as  it  passes 
through  the  water.  When  the  embryonic  shell  appears, 
the  animal  has  a  diameter  of  about  one  three-hundredth 
of  an  inch.  The  entire  swimming  period  covers  from 
three  to  six  days,  varying  considerably  with  changes  in 
the  temperature  of  the  water.  A  fall  of  temperature 
checks,  and  a  rise  to  a  certain  optimum  accelerates  de- 
velopment. The  numbers  over  some  flats  during  the 
height  of  the  reproductive  season  are  very  great.  A 
small  surface  net  a  foot  in  diameter,  on  being  towed  a 
hundred  yards  through  the  water,  has  been  observed  to 
capture  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  thousand  of  the  swim- 
mi  ng  young. 

At  this  time  the  young  are  undoubtedly  destroyed  in 

290 


The  Life  History  of  the  Soft  Clam      291 

great  numbers  by  many  swimming  enemies,  and  Mr.  D. 
L.  Belding,  Biologist  of  the  Massachusetts  Fish  and 
Game  Commission,  has  recently  made  observations 
which  show  that  cold  rains  are  very  fatal  to  them. 
"  During  a  long,  cold  rain,"  he  writes,  "  counts  were 
made  of  the  number  of  larvae  in  a  certain  amount  of 
water  which  passed  through  the  plankton  net:  before 
the  rain,  30,000;  after  nine  hours,  15,000;  after  fifteen 
hours,  3,000.  After  the  rain  had  ceased,  the  number  of 
larvae  gradually  increased  until  it  was  the  same  as  at 
the  first  count."  This  is  interesting,  because  the  varia- 
tion in  the  "  set  "  in  different  years  seems,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  oyster,  to  be  best  explained  by  these  and  other  sud- 
den lowerings  of  temperature  during  the  swimming 
period. 

From  this  time  on,  the  habits  of  the  young  clam  be- 
come very  different  from  those  of  the  young  oyster  of 
the  same  age.  While  the  latter  settles  and  at  once  be- 
comes fixed  to  some  foreign  object  for  the  rest  of  its  life, 
the  young  Mya  must  still  expose  itself  to  many  dangers 
before  reaching  a  safe  resting-place  in  the  bottom. 

During  the  later  part  of  the  swimming  stage,  a  well 
developed,  muscular  foot  appears,  extending  along  the 
whole  lower  or  ventral  side  of  the  body.  It  is  now  rela- 
tively very  large,  as  it  is  in  the  adult  hard  clam  or  little 
neck,  but  later  it  will  become  proportionately  much  re- 
duced in  size.  Siphon  and  gills,  also,  have  made  their 
appearance.  The  velum,  a  projecting  pad  covered  with 
the  swimming  cilia,  gradually  disappears,  and  the  small 
clam  settles  to  the  bottom. 

During  the  few  days  of  the  swimming  period,  the 
young  clam  may  have  been  carried  some  distance  from  its 
starting-point,  not  only  by  its  power  of  locomotion,  but 


292  Our  Food  Mollusks 

passively  by  tide  currents;  but  because  the  young  always 
settle  in  considerable  numbers  on  old  natural  beds,  some 
of  those  carried  away  by  the  retreating  tide  must  be 
brought  back  by  the  flood.  But  in  selecting  bottoms  for 
artificial  beds,  localities  possibly  might  be  found  that  are 
favorable  for  planted  clams,  but  on  which  there  would 
be  little  or  no  natural  set  of  the  young  because  of  peculi- 
arities of  currents. 

It  is  certain  that  the  young  clam  makes  no  selection 
whatever  of  bottoms  on  which  to  settle,  though  curious 
segregations  of  minute  clams  that  are  often  met  with 
might  suggest  some  such  power.  Here  and  there  it  will 
be  found  that  sea-weeds  bear  newly  settled  clams  in 
great  numbers.  Certain  strips  of  beach  also  have  been 
observed  on  which  multitudes  of  small  soft  clams  have 
settled,  the  margins  of  the  tracts  being  sharply  limited. 
On  adjacent  bottoms  very  few  are  to  be  found.  Prob- 
ably these  great  inequalities  in  distribution  are  due  en- 
tirely to  peculiarities  of  water  currents.  When  a  certain 
stage  of  development  is  reached,  the  swimming  form  set- 
tles, wherever  it  happens  to  be.  More  will  fall  where 
large  volumes  of  water  pass  in  the  form  of  sharply  de- 
fined currents  than  where  there  is  little  movement  of 
water.  As  so  often  happens  in  nature,  the  seed  is  sown 
broadcast.  While  in  this  case  it  can  usually  live  only  on 
certain  restricted  tracts  between  tide  lines,  it  falls  in 
deep  water  and  shallow  alike,  probably  thousands  of 
times  more  often  where  death  is  inevitable  than  where 
farther  development  is  possible. 

During  the  swimming  period  there  has  been  formed 
far  back  on  the  under  side  of  the  foot  a  gland  for  secret- 
ing a  transparent  fluid  which,  on  being  ejected  into  the 
water,  hardens  into  a  minute,  tough  thread  known  as  the 


The  Life  History  of  the  Soft  Clam      293 

byssus.  Immediately  on  settling,  the  young  clam  at- 
taches itself  by  means  of  this  thread  to  shells,  sea-weeds, 
pebbles,  or  even  to  sand.  It  is  now  not  much  larger  than 
many  of  the  sand  grains,  and  its  body  is  so  light  that 
if  it  were  not  anchored  in  some  way,  it  would  be  rolled 
along  by  the  action  of  the  water.  When  water  move- 
ments cease,  as  at  slack  tide,  it  often  casts  off  the  byssus 


FIG.  56. — Very  small  long  neck  clam 
(.4  millimeter),  b,  byssus;  /,  foot; 
s,  siphon.  Drawn  from  living  speci- 
men. 

and  begins  to  creep  by  means  of  its  foot.  What  the  ob- 
ject of  this  habit  may  be  it  is  difficult  to  imagine,  for  the 
little  creature,  even  if  in  search  of  a  more  favorable  lo- 
cality, is  able  to  move  only  very  short  distances.  After 
a  little  exercise  of  this  sort,  it  rapidly  secretes  and  fast- 
ens another  thread,  but  sometimes  continues  to  creep 
about  to  the  length  of  its  tether. 

The  general  appearance  of  this  newly  settled  clam 
is  illustrated  in  Figure  56.  Foot  (/)  and  siphon  (s) 
are  shown  extended,  and  the  byssus  thread  (b)  with  its 


294  Our  Food  Mollusks 

terminal  branches,  is  represented.  The  outline  of  the 
shell  is  very  different  from  that  of  the  adult,  being  nearly 
round.  The  umbones  also  are  very  prominent. 

Probably  not  even  the  swimming  stage  is  more  crit- 
ical for  Mya  than  this  period  of  creeping,  which  is  of 
longer  duration.  If  on  a  beach,  where  it  has  a  chance 
of  continuing  its  existence,  it  may  be  washed  away  by 
stormy  waters;  and  everywhere  on  the  bottom  it  is  ex- 
posed to  numerous  enemies  and  has  little  defense  against 
them,  for  its  transparent  shell  is  still  very  thin  and  brittle. 
Perhaps  to  this  stage  at  least  the  line  from  Saxe's  "  Ode 
to  a  Clam  "  might  apply,  "  Thy  valves  are  sure  no  safety- 
valves  to  thee." 

Crabs  and  small  fishes  probably  take  many  of  them  for 
food,  but  the  most  destructive  of  the  clam's  enemies  are 
young  starfish.  These  are  produced  in  the  early  summer 
when  the  young  clams  are  making  their  appearance,  and 
after  a  short  swimming  period,  also  settle  to  the  bottom 
in  company  with  them.  Even  before  their  rays  are 
formed,  these  pests  develop  an  almost  incredible  voracity. 
They  embrace  their  infant  companions  with  all  the  gen- 
tleness displayed  by  their  parents  in  their  relations  with 
adult  bivalves,  and  to  equal  purpose. 

This  tragedy  in  miniature  is  illustrated  in  Figure  57, 
which  represents  a  starfish  about  two  days  old  devouring 
a  young  clam  that  it  has  found  on  the  surface  of  the  bot- 
tom. The  drawing  is  not  fanciful,  but  was  made  from 
the  living  subjects — or,  more  properly,  perhaps,  the  liv- 
ing and  dead.  The  actual  length  of  the  clam's  shell  was 
one  and  seven-tenths  millimeters — about  one-sixteenth  of 
an  inch.  Some  of  the  sucker  feet  are  seen  to  be  attached 
to  the  shell  of  the  clam,  while  others  are  extended  later- 
ally. The  faint  outline  of  the  stomach  of  the  starfish 


The  Life  History  of  the  Soft  Clam      295 

may  be  discerned  through  the  transparent  shell  of  its 
victim. 

Escaping  its  enemies  and  becoming  larger,  the  diminu- 
tive clam  begins  to  exhibit  the  digging  habit,  for  now 
and  then  it  attempts  to  thrust  the  sharp  point  of  its 
foot  down  among  the  sand  grains.  At  first,  even  when 


FIG.  57. — Very  small  starfish  devouring  a  young  long 
neck  clam.  /,  sucker  feet;  s,  everted  stomach  of 
starfish  seen  through  the  transparent  shell  of  the 
clam.  Drawn  from  the  specimen. 

the  sand  is  fine,  it  is  unable  to  accomplish  anything 
because  of  the  lightness  of  its  body.  Soon,  how- 
ever, when  the  shell  has  become  about  two  millimeters 
long,  it  is  able  to  push  and  worm  the  foot  into  the  bottom, 
and  the  shell  is  then  gradually  worked  in  after  it.  Clams 
six  or  seven  millimeters  long  are  able  to  burrow  into  very 
stiff  bottoms. 

Having  thus  completely  covered  itself,  the  young  Mya 


296 


Our  Food  Mollusks 


once  more  spins  a  byssus,  attaching  it  to  several  sand 
grains  or  pebbles  in  the  wall  of  its  burrow.  The  bur- 
row at  this  time  is  very  shallow,  and  there  is  safety  in 
thus  anchoring,  for  a  storm  that  might  disturb  the  bot- 
tom even  slightly,  would  expose  the  creature.  Newly 


FIG.  58. — Long  neck  clam,  Mya,  with  a  byssus  (&)  attached 
to  sand  grains  (sg).  Drawn  from  living  specimen,  on 
a  smaller  scale  than  Fig.  56. 

buried  clams  have  the  habit  of  casting  the  byssus  off  at 
the  point  of  its  attachment  to  the  body,  of  coming  out 
of  the  burrow  and  creeping  for  short  distances,  and  then 
of  burrowing  once  more. 

Figure  58,  drawn  on  a  much  smaller  scale  than  Figure 
56,  represents  a  soft  clam  two  and  three-tenths  milli- 


The  Life  History  of  the  Soft  Clam      297 

meters  in  length  removed  from  one  of  its  earliest  bur- 
rows. The  outline  of  the  shell  is  now  quite  as  different 
from  that  of  an  earlier  period  as  from  that  of  the  adult 
condition.  An  idea  of  the  actual  size  of  the  clam  may  be 
had  by  comparing  it  with  the  bodies  s  g,  which  represent 
sand  grains  of  average  size.  Byssus  threads  continue  to 
be  secreted  until  the  clam  is  at  least  half  an  inch  long. 
It  is  probably  at  about  this  time  that  a  final  descent  is 
made.  The  byssus  gland  then  atrophies  and  entirely  dis- 
appears, and  the  animal  never  comes  to  the  surface  again 
through  its  own  effort. 


CHAPTER  XX 

THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  SOFT  CLAM  AND 
SOME   NOTES   ON   CLAM   CULTURE 


T  has  not  been  many  years  since  it  was  the 
habit  of  some  to  complain  at  the  expenditure 
of  public  money  in  the  maintenance  of 
scientific  departments  by  the  federal  govern- 
ment. There  was  also  much  prejudice  against  state 
agricultural  schools.  Scientific  farming  was  scorned  by 
those  who  regarded  themselves  as  practical  farmers,  and 
no  one  else  was  much  interested  in  experiments  looking 
toward  the  preservation  of  soils,  the  production  of  new 
varieties  of  corn  or  wheat,  and  the  warfare  against  in- 
sect pests.  A  thousand  problems,  the  solution  of  which 
has  now  added  untold  wealth  and  comfort  to  the  nation, 
were  once  regarded  as  foolish  speculations.  Prejudice 
has  now  been  completely  overcome,  and  every  one  is 
familiar  with  the  great  practical  achievements  of 
scientific  workers  in  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Agriculture, 
and  in  the  state  experiment  stations  and  schools. 

It  has  come  to  be  understood  also  that  fish  commis- 
sions, instead  of  existing  merely  to  stock  streams  for 
wealthy  sportsmen,  have  worked  wonders  in  the  arti- 
ficial propagation  of  fishes,  and  in  saving  many  of  them 
from  extermination.  They  have  given  their  attention 
also  to  other  aquatic  food  animals.  The  aid  which  has 
been  given  by  the  federal  Bureau  of  Fisheries  to  various 

298 


The  Growth  of  the  Soft  Clam          299 

states  interested  in  the  oyster  industry  alone,  in  surveys 
and  in  experiment,  has  been  great,  and  is  now  sincerely 
appreciated.  Now  that  the  nation  has  been  wakened  in  a 
wonderful  manner  to  the  necessity  of  saving  what  re- 
mains of  its  natural  resources,  and  of  increasing  them 
when  possible,  it  is  an  encouraging  and  stimulating  thing 
to  possess  so  many  demonstrations  of  the  ease  with 
which  vast  material  results  may  be  obtained  by  working 
intelligently  with  nature  instead  of  against  her. 

What  may  be  a  relatively  unimportant  example  of  the 
nature  of  such  work,  is  afforded  by  the  clam  problem 
that  effects  the  north  Atlantic  shore.  When  it  became 
evident  that  the  soft  clam  industry  was  rapidly  becom- 
ing ruined,  a  study  of  the  subject  was  begun  by  the 
writer  in  1898  at  the  suggestion  of  Dr.  H.  C.  Bumpus, 
with  a  view  of  determining  the  conditions  governing  the 
life  of  Mya,  the  rapidity  of  its  growth,  and  other  facts 
that  might  lead  to  the  development  of  a  practical  method 
of  clam  culture.  This  result  was  arrived  at,  and  has 
been  thoroughly  tried  and  proved  by  state  commissions, 
especially  in  Massachusetts.  All  that  is  now  necessary 
for  the  rapid  regeneration  and  improvement  of  the  soft 
clam  industry  is  the  formulation  of  state  laws  giving 
titles  to  bottoms  where  it  may  be  carried  on. 

Most  of  the  early  experiments  were  made  on  beaches 
where  conditions  were  recognized  as  being  unfavorable, 
because  facilities  for  the  work  were  not  to  be  had  else- 
where. Tide  currents  especially  were  sluggish  on  some 
of  the  ground,  and  on  many  of  the  beds  that  were  con- 
structed there  was  little  more  than  a  quiet  rise  and  fall 
of  water.  These  facts  make  the  results  all  the  more  re- 
markable. 

The  plan  followed  was  to  select  bottoms  for  the  ex- 


3OO  Our  Food  Mollusks 

perimental  beds  where  differences  in  soil,  time  of  ex- 
posure, salinity,  and  especially  variations  in  the  exchange 
of  water  over  them,  should  be  as  great  as  possible. 
When  the  areas  chosen  had  been  staked  out,  the  ground 
was  carefully  dug  over  and  all  clams  found  were  re- 
moved. Seed  clams  were  gathered  sometimes  from  the 
same  locality,  and  sometimes  at  distant  points,  where  the 
temperature  and  salinity  of  the  water  were  very  different. 
Clams  to  be  planted  were  of  different  sizes,  and  some 
were  planted  quickly  in  beds  prepared  for  them,  while 
others  were  exposed  to  the  air  for  varying  periods  be- 
fore planting.  Records  of  these  facts  were  kept,  and 
results  noted  when  the  beds  were  subsequently  dug.  In 
order  to  determine  accurately  the  amount  of  growth,  the 
length  of  each  individual  clam — and  altogether  there 
were  many  thousands  of  them — was  measured,  and  those 
of  a  size  were  planted  together.  Beds  were  subdivided 
by  measurement,  and  diagrams  in  a  note-book  showed 
exactly  what  clams  were  placed  in  each  square  foot,  and 
gave  their  number.  Planting  was  done  during  the 
months  of  July  and  August,  and  the  beds  were  dug  a 
year  later. 

Some  of  the  results  of  these  first  clam  experiments, 
made  on  the  south  side  of  Cape  Cod,  may  be  given 
briefly. 

The  most  important  fact  brought  to  light  was  that 
growth,  as  compared  with  that  of  the  oyster,  was  very 
rapid.  As  already  stated,  the  length  of  each  clam  was 
determined  just  before  planting,  and  again  after  a  year 
of  growth,  to  determine  the  amount  of  increase.  But  a 
statement  of  the  increase  in  length  gives  no  adequate 
idea  of  the  amount  of  growth.  That  is  best  accom- 
plished by  obtaining  the  actual  increase  in  volume,  and 


The  Growth  of  the  Soft  Clam          301 

may  be  expressed  in  weight  or  in  cubic  contents.  The 
latter  plan  was  chosen,  and  the  determination  made  by 
displacement  in  water.  A  clam  one  inch  long  displaces 
approximately  1.6  cubic  centimeters  of  water;  one  two 
inches  long  displaces  about  1 1  cc.,  or  nearly  seven  times  as 
much;  while  an  individual  measuring  three  inches  dis- 
places 43  cc.,  and  is  about  twenty-seven  times  as  large  as 
the  first.  With  a  table  of  such  facts,  inches  were  trans- 
formed to  cubic  centimeters,  and  the  increase  in  volume 
expressed  in  percentages. 

Again,  clams  all  of  the  same  length  when  planted  will 
vary  somewhat  in  size  after  a  year's  growth.  When 
these  were  dug  and  measured,  they  were  segregated  into 
sets  according  to  size.  The  number  in  each  set  was 
counted,  the  sets  arranged  in  a  series,  and  the  arith- 
metical mean  of  the  series  calculated.  Then  the  volume 
of  the  mean  of  the  series  was  compared  with  the  volume 
of  the  clams  when  planted,  and  the  percentage  of  in- 
crease in  volume  determined. 

Perhaps  a  specific  example  of  the  employment  of  this 
method  will  be  less  opaque  than  the  foregoing  statement. 
In  a  bed  planted  on  July  13,  1899,  the  planted  clams 
were  one  and  one-half  inches  long.  They  were  removed 
on  July  4,  1900,  the  length  of  each  obtained,  and  all 
were  arranged  in  sets,  and  the  sets  in  a  series.  The 
mean  length  of  the  series,  expressed  in  eighths  of  an  inch, 
was  20.952,  or  nearly  two  and  five-eighths  inches.  The 
volume  of  a  clam  one  and  a  half  inches  long  is  4.5  cc. 
That  of  an  individual  two  and  five-eighths  inches  in 
length  is  32  cc.  Therefore  the  increase  in  volume  in  this 
case  is  about  688  per  cent. 

Many  thousand  clams  were  placed  in  beds  in  a  locality 
in  which  there  was  practically  no  current,  the  only  ex- 


302 


Our  Food  Mollusks 


change  of  water  being  in  the  rising  and  falling  tide.  In 
July,  pebbles  and  stones  on  the  surface  became  coated 
with  a  dense  growth  of  sea-weed.  Masses  of  dead  eel- 
grass,  which  were  barely  floated  at  high  tide,  also  re- 
mained on  the  beds  for  days  at  a  time  during  the 
summer.  All  of  this  must  have  interfered  greatly  with 
the  feeding  of  the  clams,  but  in  spite  of  the  unfavorable 
condition,  the  increase  in  volume  was  great,  as  is  shown 
in  the  following  table : — 


Size  when  planted. 

Approximate 
percentage 
of  increase 
in  i  year. 

Size  when  planted. 

Approximate 
percentage 
of  increase 
in  i  year. 

g-  inches 

Per  cent. 

ccfc 

2js-  inches 

Per  cent. 

I'lQ 

inches  

422 

2-§  inches 

IOQ 

\  inches  

2f  inches  .... 

78 

j  inches  

284. 

2^  inches  

38 

j  inches 

2IO 

2j|  inches 

28 

inches  

IQO 

In  order  to  present  some  tangible  idea  of  this  growth, 
Figure  60  was  prepared.  The  jar  to  the  left  contains 
seventy-five  individuals,  each  one  and  five-eighths  inches 
long.  The  other  holds  an  equal  number  of  the  size  of 
the  mean  after  a  year  of  growth — two  and  a  half  inches. 
The  increase  in  volume  is  347  per  cent.  If  clams  much 
smaller  when  planted  had  been  chosen,  the  illustration 
would  have  been  much  more  striking. 

The  following  table  shows  the  growth  of  several  thou- 
sand clams  on  a  bed  where  the  exchange  of  water  was 
much  better  than  on  the  first,  though  not  so  good  as  on 
some  flats.  Unfortunately  most  of  the  clams  planted 
here  were  smaller  than  those  on  the  first  beds,  so  that  the 
percentage  of  increase  cannot  be  compared.  Small 


The  Growth  of  the  Soft  Clam 


303 


clams  increase  more  rapidly  than  large  ones  under 
identical  conditions.  One  series  of  the  same  size — 
that  in  which  clams  were  one  and  three-eighths  inches 
long — was  planted  in  each  locality.  On  the  first  beds, 
where  there  was  little  current,  the  increase  was  556  per 
cent.,  on  the  second  711  per  cent. 


Size  when  planted. 

Approximate 
percentage 
of  increase 
in  i  year. 

Size  when  planted. 

Approximate 
percentage 
of  increase 
in  i  year. 

i     inch 

Per  cent. 
Il^o 

if  inches  

Per  cent. 
768 

i^  inches  

802 

i|  inches  

711 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  increase  of  one  inch  clams 
was  1,150  per  cent.  The  mean  length  of  these  clams 
when  dug  was  nearly  three  inches,  that  is,  they  had 
grown  from  a  length  of  one  inch  to  marketable  size  in 
one  year.  Most  of  this  growth  took  place  during  the 
summer  and  fall. 

It  is  usually  possible  to  obtain  large  numbers  of  clams 
of  this  size  for  planting.  When  spread  on  a  beach,  they 
are  able  to  burrow  into  it  readily,  and  when  established, 
will  remain.  In  order  to  be  certain  of  the  growth  of  in- 
dividuals of  this  size,  another  bed,  with  which  great  care 
was  taken,  was  selected  for  them,  this  time  where  the 
current  was  a  little  more  marked,  and  where  they  were 
immersed  each  day  for  a  somewhat  longer  time.  The 
increase  in  this  bed  was  1,337  Per  cent-  The  relative 
sizes  of  the  clams  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  year 
are  shown  in  Figure  59. 

These  experiments  with  Mya  were  subsequently  re- 
peated on  a  much  larger  scale,  both  above  and  below 
Cape  Cod,  by  the  Massachusetts  Fish  and  Game  Com- 


304  Our  Food  Mollusks 

mission.  The  work  was  done  with  extreme  care,  and 
by  expert  observers,  beds  being  constructed  at  many 
points  on  the  coast  and  in  all  sorts  of  localities.  The  re- 
sults of  the  earlier  experiments  were  completely  verified, 
and  as  most  of  the  work  was  done  on  flats  instead  of  on 
beaches,  were  even  more  favorable. 

The  following  quotation  from  the  commission's  re- 
port for  1907  gives  a  general  summary  of  results  in  the 
case  of  a  one  inch  clam : — 

"  A  i -inch  clam  will  grow  in  one  year  to  a  size  between 
2  and  3  inches.  Under  fairly  favorable  conditions,  with 
a  moderate  current,  a  i-inch  clam  will  increase  to  2.]/2 
inches,  or  a  gain  of  900  per  cent,  in  volume.  For  every 
quart  planted,  the  yield  in  one  year  will  be  9  quarts. 
For  beds  without  current,  i-inch  clams  average  about 
2  inches,  or  a  gain  of  500  per  cent.;  i.e.,  five  quarts  for 
every  quart  planted.  Beds  under  exceptionally  fine  con- 
ditions have  shown  the  amazing  return  of  15  quarts  for 
every  quart  of  i-inch  clams  planted.  Clams  increased 
in  these  beds  from  i  to  3  inches  in  length.  Therefore, 
by  planting  clams  i  inch  or  over,  under  favorable  condi- 
tions a  marketable  clam  can  be  produced  in  one  year." 

The  growth  of  Mya  has  been  studied  in  much  more  de- 
tail than  that  of  the  oyster.  It  is,  of  course,  the  point  of 
greatest  importance  to  the  culturist,  and  the  possibilities 
of  increase  under  good  conditions,  as  here  illustrated, 
certainly  are  not  overstated. 

Though  some  practical  clammers  have  seen  the  value, 
and  more  recently  the  coming  necessity,  of  clam  culture, 
there  have  been  few  attempts  to  practise  it,  and  almost 
none  that  have  been  thoroughgoing.  The  chief  reason 
for  this  is  that  it  has  been  impossible  to  obtain  rights  to 
clam  bottoms  that  would  be  respected. 


Fir,  59.     Increase  in  size   in  one  year  of  clam  one  inch  lon<* 
when  planted. 


FIG.  60.  Increase  i:i  volume  in  one  year  of  clams  in  an  ex- 
perimental bed  with  slieht  current.  J.  L.  Kellogg,  Special 
Shell-fish  Commission,  I  .  S.  F.  C 


Of   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


The  Growth  of  the  Soft  Clam          305 

In  a  U.  S.  Fish  Commission  report  published  in  1887, 
reference  is  made  to  an  attempt  at  clam  farming  at 
Bridgeport,  Conn.  It  is  stated  that  a  beach  right  was 
secured  under  a  general  state  law,  but  that  there  was 
"  immense  opposition  from  the  shore  people  of  the  sub- 
urbs, who,  as  usual,  bitterly  and  blindly  opposed  any 
cultivation  of  marine  products." 

Small  clams  were  planted  by  being  placed  in  holes 
made  in  sand,  but  this  was  found  to  be  slow,  and  an  at- 
tempt was  made,  by  the  use  of  all  sorts  of  plows  and  cul- 
tivators, to  plow  the  seed  in.  Finally  a  light  plow  was 
invented  that  was  said  to  do  the  work  satisfactorily. 
The  bed,  which  was  about  half  an  acre  in  extent,  was  in- 
spected three  years  after  the  first  planting,  and  showed 
an  immense  number  of  clams.  As  they  were  apparently 
too  thickly  set,  the  owner  was  engaged  in  thinning  and 
transplanting  them,  and  believed  that  he  "  must  wait 
four  or  five  years  for  his  first  crop."  Even  at  that,  the 
writer  of  the  report  declared,  "  I  know  of  no  branch  of 
mollusk  culture  likely  to  prove  more  remunerative  than 
this,  so  long  as  it  is  not  overdone."  Nevertheless,  for 
some  reason  the  attempt  at  Bridgeport  was  discontinued. 

Laws  of  New  England  shore  states  allow  towns  to 
rent  their  flats  to  citizens  for  the  purpose  of  planting 
clams.  At  one  time  or  another  several  towns  have  done 
this,  but  all  attempts  at  clam  culture  have  proved  to  be 
dismal  failures,  not  because  of  adverse  natural  condi- 
tions, but  from  rivalries  and  ill  feeling  among  those  who 
were  most  interested,  and  from  the  difficulty  in  punish- 
ing trespassers. 

Perhaps  the  nearest  approach  to  success  was  made  by 
the  town  of  Essex  in  Massachusetts.  In  1888  its  select- 
men were  authorized  to  rent  lots  of  one  acre  or  less,  to 


306  Our  Food  Mollusks 

any  citizen  of  the  town,  on  the  flats  along  the  Essex 
River;  but  it  was  not  until  1891  that  any  applications 
were  made  for  them.  In  that  and  in  the  following  year, 
nearly  forty  acres  are  said  to  have  been  rented.  At  that 
time  the  flats  were  practically  barren  from  excessive  dig- 
ging, though  formerly  they  had  been  extremely  pro- 
ductive. In  most  cases  planting  was  desultory,  each 
renter  waiting  to  see  what  his  neighbor  might  be  able  to 
accomplish  in  his  experiment,  before  he  gave  his  own 
time  to  it.  A  few  diligent  ones  succeeded  in  demonstrat- 
ing the  feasibility  of  the  method,  but  as  no  person  lived 
within  sight  of  the  majority  of  the  beds,  the  property  was 
not  guarded,  and  no  planter  received  any  benefit  from 
his  work.  There  were  no  reapplications  for  leases  when 
the  first  had  expired. 

Again  and  again  it  has  been  proved  that  the  way  to 
meet  an  increased  demand  for  living  natural  products 
is  not  to  limit  the  supply,  but  to  increase  i.t,  and  almost 
invariably  this  can  be  done.  Undoubtedly  state  laws  will 
ultimately  be  modified  so  as  to  make  clam  culture  pos- 
sible, and  many  will  engage  in  i-t.  A  few  general  sug- 
gestions may  be  of  value  to  those  who  shall  be  able  to  ac- 
quire protection  in  rights  to  shore  property,  and  who  de- 
sire to  engage  in  clam  culture. 

The  prospective  culturist  will  look  about  for  favorable 
bottoms.  As  already  stated,  he  should  avoid  a  shifting 
surface  or  one  in  which  there  is  much  decaying  organic 
matter.  It  will  be  safe  to  select  one  on  which  clams  are 
growing  if  it  is  available,  but  many  that  are  quite  bar- 
ren, having  been  made  so  by  excessive  digging,  are  quite 
as  good.  It  may  sometimes  be  good  policy  to  construct 
small  experimental  beds. 

Free  exchange  of  water,  though  not  enough  to  disturb 


The  Growth  of  the  Soft  Clam          307 

the  bottom,  is  best.  As  the  oyster  culturist  chooses  cer- 
tain bottoms  on  which  oysters  grow  rapidly,  so  the  clam 
culturist  may  sometimes  advantageously  plant  seed  from 
one  and  a  half  to  two  inches  long  in  a  current  even- 
strong  enough  to  disturb  the  bottom.  Growth  is  often 
very  rapid  in  such  localities,  but  small  clams  planted  in 
them  would  be  washed  out  or  smothered.  The  rate  of 
growth  depends  directly  on  the  amount  of  food  that 
the  clam  obtains,  but  the  amount  of  food  does  not  al- 
ways depend  on  swiftness  of  current.  There  must  be 
some  movement  of  water,  but  in  some  localities  there 
are  so  many  food  organisms  in  it  that  growth  is  rapid 
when  currents  are  sluggish.  Such  points  must  be  proved 
by  trial  in  each  locality. 

The  idea  of  obtaining  seed  clams  from  artificially  fer- 
'tilized  eggs  should  be  dismissed  at  the  beginning.  Arti- 
ficial fertilization  of  oysters  eggs  is  easily  accomplished, 
but  no  one  has  yet  been  able  to  make  any  practical  use 
of  it.  With  the  eggs  of  Mya  it  is  very  difficult,  and  no 
one  is  likely  ever  to  make  a  success  of  rearing  the  young 
from  the  egg.  Furthermore,  it  would  seldom  be  of  value 
in  either  case  to  be  able  to  do  so,  for  the  natural  supply 
is  sufficient. 

The  set  will  always  vary  as  the  oyster  set  does.  In 
any  locality  it  will  be  heavy  one  year  and  light  another. 
On  one  flat  it  may  be  a  failure,  usually  from  a  local  ad- 
verse condition  like  a  cold  rain  when  the  water  is  full  of 
swimming  embryos.  Several  days  of  low  temperature 
may  cause  it  to  be  more  widespread.  There  seems, 
however,  seldom  to  be  a  failure  over  much  of  the  shore 
at  one  time.  If  necessary,  it  should  be  possible  to  pur- 
chase seed  at  no  great  distance  from  any  point  where  a 
failure  occurs. 


308  Our  Food  Mollusks 

Sometimes  the  set  is  quite  evenly  spread  over  a  flat. 
Most  often  it  is  very  irregular,  being  generally  thin, 
but  very  dense  in  a  few  spots.  These  dense  segrega- 
tions, that  every  clammer  knows,  are  caused  by  sharply 
defined  currents  that  have  passed  near  spawning  clams. 
Every  day  during  the  breeding  season  some  swimming 
individuals  reach  the  stage  of  development  in  which  they 
sink  to  the  bottom,  and  a  more  or  less  steady  shower  of 
them  continues  to  fall  for  several  weeks.  More  swim- 
ming forms  will  pass  over  the  bottom  that  underlies  a 
current  than  elsewhere,  and  this  will  receive  an  unusually 
large  number  of  the  settling  individuals.  Some  modi- 
fication of  a  current,  as  an  eddy  on  its  margin,  may 
sweep  together  astonishingly  great  accumulations.  Such 
segregations  are  common,  and  the  fate  of  the  young 
clams  comprising  them  has  been  studied  and  described. 

Two  such  areas,  for  example,  lying  under  parallel  and 
sharply  defined  currents  that  were  separated  by  a  dense 
mat  of  eel-grass,  were  nearly  two  hundred  yards  long 
(Figure  61).  Each  was  but  two  or  three  yards  wide. 
In  the  middle  of  the  breeding  season  they  were  as  densely 
packed  as  it  was  possible  for  them  to  be.  Before  the 
end  of  the  summer  all  had  died  from  overcrowding. 

A  similar  segregation,  occurring  on  the  flats  near  Ips- 
wich, in  Massachusetts,  the  fate  of  which,  however,  was 
not  witnessed,  has  been  well  described  by  Mr.  J.  R. 
Stevenson.  "  Often,"  he  writes,  "  they  are  so  numerous 
that  only  a  small  portion  can  burrow,  the  rest  being  but 
half  in  the  sand,  or  merely  resting  upon  its  surface,  the 
sport  of  every  storm.  Such  an  area  I  found  during  No- 
vember, 1906,  in  Plum  Island  Sound,  upon  the  east  side 
of  Rowley  Reef.  The  narrow  channel  here  washes  the 
eastern  thatch  bank.  Upon  the  west  side  of  this  channel 


The  Growth  of  the  Soft  Clam          309 

a  long  reef  has  grown  up,  on  which  lay  the  prodigiously 
abundant  set.  Several  clammers  have  told  me  that  fre- 
quently such  sets  occur  here.  Upon  an  area  of  600  to 
700  feet  long,  tapering  at  the  ends,  and  about  150  feet 
wide  in  the  center,  I  found  a  set  of  young  clams  from 
1,000  to  5,000  per  square  foot.  From  an  average  square 


FIG.  61. — Position  of  dense  set  of 
young  of  Mya  in  a  small  bay. 
Dotted  line  marks  the  low-tide 
level.  J.  L.  Kellogg.  Report  of 
Special  Shell  Fish  Commission,  U. 
S.  F.  C. 

foot  of  sand  in  which  every  clam  was  burrowed  out  of 
sight,  and  in  which  I  counted  roughly  1,000  holes,  I  dug 
1,937  clams,  averaging  about  half  an  inch  in  length. 
From  a  square  foot  of  sand  into  which  the  clams  had  not 
completely  burrowed  I  sifted  2,486  clams.  Roughly 


310  Our  Food  Mollusks 

estimating  this  area  at  50,000  square  feet  set  with  clams 
at  least  1,000  per  square  foot,  we  have  the  enormous 
total  of  50,000,000  young  clams.  Averaging,  as  I  found, 
about  3,000  per  quart,  there  are  about  17,000  quarts, 
which  is  over  500  bushels  of  young  clams.  The  produc- 
ing power  after  two  years'  time,  of  these  500  bushels  we 
may  scarcely  estimate.  From  certain  productive  flats 
less  than  500  two-year-old  clams  filled  a  bushel  basket. 
This  young  set  on  Rowley  Reef  goes  100,000  per  bushel. 
If  all  were  thriving  after  two  years,  we  would  find  a 
gain  in  volume  of  160;  i.e.,  if  to-day  we  were  to  plant  i 
bushel  of  this  set,  within  two  years  we  would  be  able 
to  dig  over  160  bushels  of  fair-sized,  marketable  clams. 
Many  of  these  clams,  even  if  carefully  transplanted, 
would  die;  yet,  if  but  a  half  survive,  the  gain  in  volume 
of  even  80  bushels  is  enormous. 

"  Near  the  center  of  the  most  thickly  set  area  I  found 
a  tidal  pool,  roughly  12  feet  long  by  6  feet  wide,  and 
about  15  inches  deep.  At  first  sight  it  seemed  but  an 
inch  or  two  deep,  but  upon  wading  into  it  I  sank  to  my 
knees.  Imagine  my  surprise  when  I  found  it  was  not 
mud  into  which  I  sank,  but  a  mass  of  living  clams. 
Here  were  more  than  60  cubic  feet  of  solid  clams. 

"  The  first  day  I  visited  the  reef  I  dug  a  short  trench, 
about  15  feet  long,  across  a  portion  of  this  thickly  set 
flat.  The  day  following  I  found  several  pailfuls  of 
young  clams  gathered  by  the  force  of  the  water  into  clean 
heaps.  When  such  natural  tide  pools  fail  in  their  sup- 
ply, it  is  possible  to  dig  others,  and,  by  turning  over  the 
thickly  seeded  flat,  to  let  the  tides  and  waves  fill  the  new 
pools  with  the  dislodged  clams." 

Very  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  these  collections 
by  clammers,  but  they  are  well  worth  careful  observa- 


The  Growth  of  the  Soft  Clam          311 

tion.  They  afford  a  good  illustration  of  the  wasteful- 
ness and  destructiveness  of  nature,  and  at  the  same  time 
present  an  excellent  opportunity  to  retrieve  what  usually 
would  be  a  total  loss,  for  when  left  to  themselves,  these 
vast  communities  of  infants  commonly  perish.  In  the 
case  of  most  organisms  seed  is  scattered  beyond  recov- 
ery, but  here  it  is  collected  by  the  tides  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  may  easily  be  gathered.  While  there  is  great 
variation  in  the  size  and  position  of  these  segregations 
in  successive  years,  they  occur  on  large  flats  with  suffi- 
cient regularity  to  insure  a  source  of  seed  for  planting. 

A  careful  examination  of  an  extensive  clam  bottom 
will  also  reveal  areas  here  and  there  on  which  are  clams 
of  all  sizes  up  to  two  inches  in  length.  These  are 
crowded,  but  not  often  densely  packed.  Here  there 
seems  to  be  a  balance,  the  greatest  number  possible,  with 
the  supply  of  food  brought  by  the  currents,  continuing 
to  exist,  but  growing  very  little,  if  at  all.  Year  after 
year  the  numbers  and  sizes  of  clams  in  such  places  have 
been  observed  to  remain  about  the  same.  Such  collec- 
tions also  afford  seed,  and  the  rate  of  growth  under  more 
favorable  circumstances  that  may  be  expected  of  in- 
dividuals between  one  and  two  inches  in  length  has  been 
indicated. 

The  planting  of  very  small  clams  is  as  simple  a  matter 
as  can  be  imagined.  If  the  bottom  is  not  too  hard,  and 
if  the  water  does  not  come  upon  it  or  leave  it  too  rap- 
idly, they  may  be  sown  broadcast  like  grain.  Those  less 
than  half  an  inch  long  will,  when  covered  by  water,  bur- 
row in  the  course  of  five  or  ten  minutes.  Most  clams  an 
inch  long  will  also  cover  themselves,  though  the  process 
requires  a  somewhat  longer  time.  It  has  been  shown 
that  this  might  be  made  easier  if  the  bottom  were  previ- 


312  Our  Food  Mollusks 

ously  plowed  or  raked  in  order  to  loosen  its  surface. 
Ordinarily  this  would  not  be  necessary. 

Larger  seed  might  perhaps  be  successfully  plowed  un- 
der, but  no  experiment  besides  that  at  Bridgeport  has 
been  made  to  test  it.  In  the  U.  S.  Fish  Commission  ex- 
periments, clams  were  dropped  into  holes  made  with 
stakes.  On  a  pebbly  beach  where  the  making  of  the  hole 
was  very  difficult,  four  men  at  one  time  thus  planted  three 
thousand  clams  in  two  hours.  Subsequently  on  a  sandy 
'bottom  the  work  was  accomplished  three  or  four  times 
as  rapidly.  It  would  not  be  difficult  to  construct  wheels 
with  pegs  on  the  rims  that  would  .  make  rows  of  de- 
pressions as  rapidly  as  desired.  Such  a  method  of  plant- 
ing clams  would  ensure  their  lodgment  and  their  proper 
distribution,  and  the  labor  required  ordinarily  would  not 
be  great. 

After  attaining  a  length  of  more  than  two  inches,  the 
soft  clam  is  soon  injured  by  exposure  in  summer.  Tem- 
perature, however,  and  not  merely  exposure,  is  the  im- 
portant factor.  For  several  days  the  animal  is  able  to 
withstand  temperatures  near  the  freezing  point  appar- 
ently without  injury,  but  it  lives  only  a  short  time  out  of 
the  water  in  warm  weather.  Experiments  show  that  an 
exposure  of  forty-eight  hours  during  the  hottest  part  of 
the  summer  will  lead  to  the  death  of  the  majority,  even  if 
they  are  then  planted,  but  few  perished  on  being  exposed 
twenty-four  hours  under  the  same  conditions. 

Clams  to  be  planted,  however,  should  ordinarily  be 
much  smaller  than  this,  and  the  power  to  resist  heat  in- 
creases as  size  diminishes.  When  kept  in  aquaria  sup- 
plied with  running  water,  large  clams  live  only  a  few 
days  when  the  weather  is  warm;  but  those  less  than  half 
an  inch  long  have  been  kept  alive  in  a  hot  room,  barely 


FIG.  62.  Box  suspended  from  a  raft  near  a  clam  flat  from 
May  15  until  October  15  of  the  same  year.  The  long-neck 
clams  shown  below  had  all  settled  from  the  swimming  con- 
dition into  the  sand  that  it  contained  during  this  period. 


FIG.  63.  Growth  of  Mya  in  two  years  on  i-ioo  of  an  acre  of 
a  barren  flat.  The  small  pile  at  the  right  represents  the 
size  and  volume  of  the  seed  clams  planted.  The  larger 
pile  is  eight  times  the  volume  of  the  smaller.  Experiments 
by  D.  L.  Relding,  Mass.  Fish  and  Game  Com. 


The  Growth  of  the  Soft  Clam          313 

covered  with  stagnant  water,  until,  after  many  days,  a 
scum  of  bacteria  had  formed  over  them.  Seed  for 
planting  could  be  kept  in  good  condition  out  of  water  for 
several  days  in  a  comparatively  low  temperature. 

Great  numbers  of  soft  clams  have  been  dug  from  local- 
ities where  the  water  contained  very  little  salt,  and 
planted  where  the  salinity  was  very  high,  apparently  be- 
ing not  at  all  affected  by  the  transfer.  Great  changes  in 
salinity  have  a  markedly  bad  effect  on  oysters,  interfer- 
ing especially  with  reproduction;  but  soft  clams  breed 
well  in  either  extreme.  This  condition,  that  requires  so 
much  attention  from  the  oysterman,  may  probably  be 
entirely  disregarded  by  the  clam  culturist. 

No  rule  can  be  formulated  to  govern  the  volume  of 
seed  to  be  sown  on  a  specified  area,  for  one  part  of  the 
bottom  will  support  several  times  as  many  clams  as  an- 
other, and  a  bushel  of  very  small  seed  clams  should  be 
spread  over  a  larger  space  than  if  they  were  of  greater 
size.  In  a  report  on  the  Essex  experiment  it  was  stated 
that  about  five  hundred  bushels  of  seed  were  required 
properly  to  plant  an  acre.  This  is  an  excessive  number 
for  the  most  favorable  parts  of  any  flat,  even  if  the  clams 
to  be  planted  were  relatively  large.  Very  few — perhaps 
four  or  five — bushels  of  half-inch  clams  would  be  re- 
quired to  fill  the  best  acre  that  could  be  selected,  and  the 
best  acre  would  support  many  times  the  number  that 
could  exist  on  some  of  the  poorer  ones.  Only  experi- 
ence will  indicate  the  quantity  of  seed  of  a  certain  size 
that  will  produce  the  best  results  on  a  specified  area. 

The  recent  extensive  experiments  of  the  Massachusetts 
Fish  and  Game  Commission  show  that,  on  a  flat  of 
ordinary  fertility,  ten  or  fifteen  clams  to  the  square  foot 
are  as  many  as  can  maintain  a  maximum  rate  of  growth. 


314  Our  Food  Mollusks 

But  the  difficulty  of  defining  the  conditions  on  a  flat  of 
ordinary  fertility  is  naturally  great.  All  that  may  be 
said  is  that,  usually,  it  would  not  be  safe  to  plant  a 
greater  number  than  this.  With  experience  one  may 
estimate  with  some  confidence  the  possibilities  of  an  un- 
tried bottom  after  examining  it,  and  becoming  familiar 
with  the  flow  of  water  over  it;  but  certainty  in  all  cases 
is  to  be  had  only  by  trial. 

Extensive  experiments  are  numerous  enough  to  make 
it  certain  that  on  many  of  our  flats  now  almost  entirely 
barren,  it  would  be  possible  to  produce  each  year  at 
least  four  hundred  bushels  of  marketable  clams  to  the 
acre.  These  should  be  made  to  return  a  net  profit  of  at 
least  seventy-five  cents  a  bushel,  and  probably  more,  for 
the  labor  involved  is  not  great.  It  has  been  estimated, 
after  a  careful  examination  of  the  coast  of  Massachusetts 
by  trained  biologists,  that  there  are  now  in  that  state  six 
thousand  acres  of  barren  bottoms  capable  of  producing 
clams.  The  available  territory  in  the  other  northern 
states  is  not  so  great,  but  in  some  it  is  very  extensive, 
and  all  of  it  together  might  be  made  to  produce  a  vast 
amount  of  food.  It  now  lies  as  it  has  lain  for  many 
years,  almost  entirely  barren  and  useless. 

In  the  newer  parts  of  our  country  it  has  not  been  dif- 
ficult for  a  few  individuals  to  obtain  control  of  natural 
resources.  Such  a  state  of  affairs  is  unjust  and  detri- 
mental to  the  best  interests  of  the  nation,  and  has  re- 
sulted in  a  wanton  and  appalling  waste  of  wealth,  all  of 
which  properly  belongs  to  the  many  and  not  to  the  very 
few.  But  on  our  eastern  shore  the  fisheries,  which  the 
courts  have  decided  include  the  mollusk  fisheries,  theo- 
retically belong  to  all  the  people,  and  it  is  interesting  to 
observe  that  by  exercising  these  rights  that  they  hold  in 


The  Growth  of  the  Soft  Clam          315 

common,  they  have  succeeded  in  wasting  and  destroying 
and  exterminating  quite  as  successfully  as  have  the  mo- 
nopolistic owners  of  natural  oil,  anthracite  coal,  or  timber 
resources. 

There  is  a  middle  course  between  these  extremes.  It 
has  been  explained  that  the  oystermen,  after  a  long 
struggle,  have  forced  the  public  to  take  that  course,  and 
it  has  been  generally  recognized  in  the  Atlantic  states  as 
a  just  one,  bringing  hardship  to  no  one,  and  developing 
for  the  benefit  of  all  a  great  industry  that  otherwise 
could  not  have  existed.  Apparently  no  citizen  who  has 
desired  to  taken  an  active  part  in  oyster  culture  has  been 
prevented  from  doing  so,  either  from  lack  of  shore  room 
or  from  pressure  brought  to  bear  on  him  by  strong  com- 
petitors; and  there  are  now  many  times  as  many  oysters 
growing  in  some  waters  than  ever  existed  in  them  under 
a  state  of  nature. 

There  is  every  reason  for  taking  the  same  middle 
course  in  the  disposition  of  the  extensive  area  that  might 
yield  an  abundance  of  clams — soft  and  hard  clams  alike. 
There  seems  to  be  no  reason  to  doubt  that  the  result 
would  be  as  beneficial  to  the  public  in  general  as  it  has 
been  in  the  disposal  of  the  oyster  territory.  The  case  as 
it  exists  in  New  England  is  very  clearly  put  by  Dr.  G. 
W.  Field,  Chairman  of  the  Massachusetts  Fish  and  Game 
Commission,  who  says  : — 

"  The  parallelism  between  the  shellfisheries  and  agri- 
cultural conditions,  both  historical  and  biological,  is  very 
close.  In  each,  the  original  inhabitants  depended  en- 
tirely upon  the  natural  products,  and  public  ownership 
of  land  and  all  natural  utilities  was  universal.  Later 
there  developed  the  advantage,  and  even  the  necessity,  of 
private  ownership  of  land  and  its.  products,  if  prosperity 


316  Our  Food  Mollusks 

in  its  widest  sense,  or  even  the  actual  subsistence  of  the 
increasing  population,  was  to  be  maintained.  The 
acquisition  of  titles  to  land  areas  was  the  first  logical  step. 
The  fixing  of  permanent  bounds  was  simple.  The  land 
then  furnished  a  more  readily  accessible  and  certain 
source  of  food,  which  not  only  could  be  produced  with 
relatively  little  labor  and  capital,  but  which  from  its  very 
nature  would  be  readily  and  compactly  stored  in  barns, 
cellars  and  granaries,  where  its  quality  did  not  deter- 
iorate and  where  it  was  quickly  available  in  stress  and 
storm.  The  chance  which  brought  the  first  settlers  to 
Plymouth  rather  than  to  another  section  of  our  coast  was 
responsible  for  the  present  law,  that  the  owners  of  land 
bordering  tide  water  own  the  tidal  flats  for  a  distance  of 
TOO  rods  (approximately  the  conditions  at  Plymouth), 
or  to  mean  low-water  mark  if  less  than  100  rods  from 
the  high-water  mark.  In  accordance  with  the  early 
English  law,  the  '  fisheries,'  which  the  courts  have  since 
decided  included  the  mollusk  fisheries,  were  declared  to 
be  forever  the  property  of  the  whole  people,  i.e.,  the 
State ;  and  these  fisheries  were  for  a  long  period  open  to 
any  inhabitant  of  the  State  who  might  need  to  dig  the 
shellfish  for  food  for  his  family  or  for  bait.  From 
time  to  time,  however,  special  grants  have  been  made  to 
certain  towns,  carrying  control  of  the  shellfisheries;  spe- 
cial acts  of  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  delegat- 
ing to  certain  towns  practically  all  the  rights  of  the 
State  in  the  shellfisheries  within  the  limits  of  that  town. 
"  The  present  laws  have  essentially  in  a  marked  de- 
gree converted  the  shellfisheries,  the  undivided  property 
of  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  State,  into  holdings  of  the 
shore  towns  and  cities.  In  many  instances  there  has  re- 
sulted up  to  the  present  time  merely  legalized  plundering 


The  Growth  of  the  Soft  Clam          317 

of  the  flats,  local  jealousies  prohibiting  the  digging  of 
clams  by  '  outsiders/  and  little  or  no  care  given  to  main- 
taining the  normal  yield  of  the  flats.  The  regulations 
made  by  the  selectmen  or  the  mayor  and  aldermen  are 
usually  but  distinct  attempts  at  checking  the  demand,  by 
prohibiting  digging  for  certain  periods,  by  limiting  the 
number  legally  to  be  dug  by  any  one  person,  etc.  It 
would  be  quite  as  logical  for  a  town  or  city  to  prohibit  by 
by-laws  the  use  or  digging  of  potatoes  or  any  other  food 
crop,  when  the  supply  was  short,  rather  than  to  attempt 
to  increase  the  supply.  As  a  result,  the  unsystematic 
methods  of  marketing  have  led  to  the  premature  destruc- 
tion of  far  more  clams  than  ever  go  to  market;  a  similar 
condition  would  exist  if  the  farmer  should  dig  over  his 
growing  potato  field  before  the  crop  matured,  either  in 
the  hope  of  finding  a  few  marketable  tubers,  or  to  pre- 
vent the  possibility  of  his  neighbor  digging  up  the  pota- 
toes at  that  time  or  later. 

".  .  .  The  owners  of  the  land  adjacent  to  the  flats, 
are  under  the  present  laws  often  subjected  to  annoyance 
or  loss  by  inability  to  safeguard  their  proper  rights  to  a 
certain  degree  of  freedom  from  intruders  and  from 
damage  to  bathing  or  boating  facilities,  which  constitute 
a  definite  portion  of  the  value  of  shore  property. 

".  .  .  That  any  one  class  should  claim  exclusive 
'  natural  valid  rights/  over  any  other  class,  to  the  shell- 
fish products  of  the  shores,  which  the  law  states  ex- 
pressly are  the  property  of  '  the  people/  is  as  absurd  as  to 
claim  that  any  class  had  exclusive  natural  rights  to  wild 
strawberries,  raspberries,  cranberries  or  other  wild  fruits, 
and  that  therefore  the  land  upon  which  these  grew  could 
not  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  yield  of 
these  fruits.  This  becomes  the  more  absurd  from  the 


318  Our  Food  Mollusks 

fact  that  the  wild  fruits  pass  to  the  owner  of  the  title 
of  the  land,  while  the  shellfish  are  specifically  exempted, 
and  remain  the  property  of  the  public." 

In  time  these  antiquated  laws  will  be  changed.  Clam 
bottoms  will  be  leased  to  individuals  by  the  state,  and 
not  by  the  towns,  if,  indeed,  they  are  not  eventually  sold 
as  they  should  be,  and  the  harvests  they  bear  will  belong 
to  the  owners.  But  the  demand  for  the  change  should 
come  from  the  public  and  not  alone  from  the  few  who 
would  engage  directly  in  the  clam  industry. 

With  the  formulation  of  new  laws  to  establish  the  in- 
dustry, there  should  not  be  omitted  those  safeguarding 
the  public  health,  by  requiring  cities  and  towns  near 
clam  flats  to  make  a  proper  and  safe  disposal  of  sewage. 
Oystermen  are  able  to  establish  growing  grounds  far 
from  shore,  where  oysters  will  be  safe  from  contamina- 
tion by  disease-producing  micro-organisms,  and  many  of 
them  are  doing  so;  but  soft  clams  can  be  dug  only  on  the 
shore  between  tide  lines. 

The  facts  should  be  recognized  that  the  present  soft 
clam  industry,  that  depends  entirely  on  natural  condi- 
tions, is  far  on  the  way  to  destruction;  that  nature  at  best 
is  extremely  wasteful  in  her  methods;  and  that  the  hand 
of  man  can  easily  compel  her  to  produce  great  wealth  on 
desert  places.  The  establishment  of  the  new  industry 
should  be  accomplished  with  much  less  effort  than  was 
the  existing  oyster  industry.  Very  much  less  labor  need 
be  expended  in  the  collection  of  seed.  There  need  be  no 
spreading  of  collectors.  Some  thinning  and  equalizing 
of  the  distribution  may  be  necessary  on  areas  seeded 
naturally,  but  without  boats  or  expensive  implements, 
barren  ground  may  easily  be  planted.  Once  in  the 
ground,  the  clams  are  safe  from  all  natural  enemies. 


The  Growth  of  the  Soft  Clam          319 

They  will  be  ready  for  market  in  half  the  time  required 
for  oyster  growth.  For  several  years  the  demand  has 
been  steadily  growing.  There  is  room  for  an  indefinite 
extension  of  the  market,  and  when  production  becomes 
certain,  a  fair  and  steady  price  may  be  depended  on. 
The  man  with  small  capital  may  profitably  engage  in  the 
new  enterprise.  The  culture  of  the  soft  clam  in  some  of 
the  northern  states  should  be  as  successful  as  that  of  any 
other  marine  food  organism,  and  the  culture  of  the  hard 
clam,  or  little  neck,  on  southern  shores  as  well  as  in  parts 
of  New  England,  should  also  become  of  great  import- 
ance. 

The  time  may  come  when  the  matter  of  the  artificial 
culture  of  Mya  will  be  of  interest  to  the  states  of  Cali- 
fornia and  Washington,  for  the  creature  has  established 
itself  on  the  Pacific  coast  and  is  slowly  finding  favor  in 
the  markets.  Mya  was  introduced  into  California 
waters  by  accident  or  design  about  1870,  and  being  a 
cold  water  form,  found  conditions  suited  to  its  needs, 
and  at  once  multiplied  rapidly  and  spread  over  a  large 
territory  in  San  Francisco  Bay  and  elsewhere,  occupying 
beaches  between  tide  lines,  as  at  home  in  the  Atlantic. 

The  "  eastern  clam,"  as  it  is  known  on  our  western 
coast,  appeared  in  Willapa  Bay,  Washington,  about  1880, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  come  directly  from  California. 
From  this  point  a  few  years  later  a  small  number  was 
transported  to  Puget  Sound,  near  Tacoma.  Since  that 
time  they  have  spread,  appearing  at  many  points  on  the 
shores  of  the  sound,  and  in  some  places  are  very  abun- 
dant. To  have  attained  so  wide  a  distribution  in  so  short 
a  time,  proves  that  the  conditions  in  the  new  waters  are 
very  favorable  for  the  propagation  of  the  soft  clam. 

The   Pacific   states   possess   half   a   dozen   fine   edible 


320  Our  Food  Mollusks 

clams  of  their  own.  Among  them  are  the  "  giant  clam  " 
or  "  geoduck  "  (Glycimeris  generosa),  that  sometimes 
attains  a  weight  of  more  than  six  pounds;  the  great 
"  Washington  clam"  or  "gaper  clam"  (Schizotherus 
nuttalli),  formerly  abundant,  but  now  so  much  reduced 
in  numbers  that  it  is  seldom  found  in  the  market;  the 
"  little  neck,"  "hard  shell,"  or  "rock  clam"  (Tapes 
staminea — not  the  little  neck  of  the  Atlantic  coast), 
which  is  found  in  the  markets  of  Bellingham,  Seattle, 
Tacoma,  and  elsewhere;  and  the  "butter  clam"  (Saxi- 
domus  nuttalli),  now  extensively  canned. 

But  the  virtues  of  Mya  are  such  that  it  will  probably 
commend  itself  to  the  western  public,  especially  as  most 
of  the  native  species  are  becoming  much  less  abundant. 
Even  if  Mya  could  be  had  in  numbers  great  enough 
eventually  to  take  their  places  in  the  markets,  it  would  be 
a  great  pity  to  see  these  wonderful  western  forms  ma- 
terially decrease.  Unfortunately,  practically  nothing  is 
now  known  of  their  development,  their  life  histories,  or 
their  rates  of  growth,  and  it  is  idle  to  speculate  on 
their  possible  fate,  or  on  what  their  cultivation  in  the 
bays  of  Washington  and  California  might  mean  com- 
mercially to  those  states. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
THE  HARD  CLAM 

EXT  in  commercial  importance  to  Ostrea  and 
Mya  arenaria  in  New  England,  is  the  hard 
clam.  It  is  a  warm  water  form,  and  its  dis- 
tribution extends  from  the  southern  side  of 
Cape  Cod  to  Texas.  Small  isolated  beds  exist  in  warmer 
bays  above  Cape  Cod,  but  they  are  very  few.  The  ranges 
of  hard  and  soft  clams  overlap  from  Cape  Cod  to  the 
Chesapeake,  but  from  New  York  southward  the  hard 
clam  becomes  "  the  clam." 

Venus  mercenaria  is  so  called  because  a  portion  of  the 
inner  surface  of  its  shell  is  often  stained  a  beautiful  bluish 
purple,  and  this  was  used  by  the  Indians  of  the  eastern 
shore  in  the  manufacture  of  wampum  beads.  Wampum 
was  used  not  only  for  dress  ornamentation,  and  symbolic 
belts  exchanged  to  seal  intertribal  transactions,  but  also 
as  a  currency  medium  even  in  trading  with  the  early 
white  settlers. 

A  common  name  for  Venus  in  New  England  is  "  qua- 
haug  "  or  "  quahog,"  and  is  probably  derived  from  an 
Indian  name  which  signified  "  tightly  closed  " — a  better 
name  for  the  genus  than  that  given  to  it  by  the  naturalists 
— thus  distinguishing  the  shell  from  that  of  Mya.  The 
term  "  little  neck  clam  "  is  also  used,  for  the  siphon  or 
"  neck  "  is  much  shorter  than  in  Mya,  and  the  origin  of 

321 


322  Our  Food  Mollusks 

the  name  "  hard  clam  "  is  readily  understood  when  one 
examines  the  thick,  heavy  shell. 

Though  often  found  between  tide  lines,  the  hard  clam 
occurs  in  greater  numbers  in  deeper  water,  where  it  is 
continually  submerged.  In  many  localities  in  which  con- 
ditions are  favorable,  it  grows  at  a  depth  of  at  least 
fifty  feet,  and  the  outer  limit  of  its  distribution  is  prob- 
ably considerably  farther.  It  burrows  into  the  bottom, 
but  only  deep  enough  to  cover  the  shell.  It  is  found  in 
sand,  but  more  often  where  there  is  considerable  mud. 

A  primitive  method  of  finding  these  clams  was  "  tread- 
ing "  or  feeling  in  the  mud  for  them  with  bare  feet.  It  is 
very  slow  work,  unless  clams  are  numerous  and  the  water 
shallow.  The  fishing  is  usually  done  from  boats.  In- 
frequently oyster  tongs  or  dredges  with  long  teeth  are 
used,  but  the  implement  commonly  employed  is  a  large 
rake  with  long  steel  tines.  The  handles  of  these  rakes 
are  sometimes  sixty  feet  long  for  use  in  forty  or  fifty  feet 
of  water.  To  operate  such  a  rake  requires  immense 
muscular  strength,  but  on  many  parts  of  the  New  Eng- 
land coast,  where  the  fishing  is  done,  irregularities  of  the 
bottom  prevent  the  use  of  dredges. 

For  many  years  quahaugs  have  been  cooked  and  mar- 
keted in  cans,  and  there  is  a  large  demand  for  them  in 
the  form  of  canned  chowder.  At  one  time  an  effort  was 
made  to  market  their  dried  and  granulated  flesh.  It  was 
said  that  this  material,  convenient  in  form  for  soups  and 
chowders,  had  much  merit,  but  it  failed  to  find  favor. 
During  the  last  few  years  there  has  been  a  rapidly  in- 
creasing demand  for  small  individuals  to  be  eaten,  with- 
out cooking,  from  the  half -shell.  In  restaurants  and 
hotels  these  are  called  "  little  necks." 

Venus  will  live  out  of  water  very  much  longer  than 


The  Hard  Clam  323 

Mya.  The  edges  of  its  shell  form  a  joint  that  is  al- 
most air-tight.  It  is  safely  shipped  far  inland,  even  in 
the  hottest  part  of  the  summer,  and  consequently  is  the 
form  most  commonly  used  in  fresh  water  clam-bakes — a 
rather  poor  imitation  all  through,  of  the  genuine  New 
England  institution,  but  an  enjoyable  affair  for  all 
that. 

The  hard  clam,  like  Mya,  has  suffered  a  marked  de- 
crease in  numbers  during  the  last  few  years.  In  1898 
a  single  company  that  had  been  marketing  ten  thousand 
cans  of  hard  clams  daily  for  years,  was  compelled  to 
abandon  the  Great  South  Bay  of  Long  Island  for  the 
Carolina  sounds,  because  of  an  almost  complete  failure 
in  the  supply.  Most  other  bottoms  where  hard  clams 
were  formerly  abundant  have  failed  because  of  ex- 
cessive digging. 

There  are  still  great  beds  of  these  clams  in  the  South 
that  have  never  been  disturbed.  South  of  the  Chesa- 
peake they  are  very  little  used  as  food.  In  1904  great 
numbers  of  them  were  discovered  by  the  writer  on  the 
muddy  west  shore  of  the  Chandeleur  Islands,  near  the 
delta  of  the  Mississippi.  Oystermen  and  fishermen  along 
that  coast  stated  that  they  were  never  dug  even  for  bait. 
New  Orleans  possesses  a  great  supply  of  fine  oysters, 
but  should  also  become  acquainted  with  New  England 
clam  chowder,  that  she  might  so  conveniently  make  her 
own. 

The  chief  features  of  the  development  of  Venus  have 
recently  been  determined  by  Mr.  D.  L.  Belding,  who 
finds  that,  after  being  fertilized  in  the  water  (from 
early  June  to  the  middle  of  August  in  New  England),  the 
eggs  segment  or  divide  in  much  the  same  manner  as  in 
the  oyster,  and  produce  a  swimming  form.  Before  the 


324  Our  Food  Mollusks 

swimming  organ,  or  velum,  disappears,  a  large  foot  is 
developed.  Soon  afterward  the  creature  settles  to  the 
bottom.  It  was  found  that  for  some  time  the  habits  of 
the  young  Venus  were  almost  precisely  similar  to  those 
of  Mya  of  the  same  age.  A  byssus  gland  is  present  at 
the  beginning  of  the  creeping  period,  and  the  young  qua- 
haug  attaches  itself  to  objects  on  the  bottom  by  a  byssus 
thread.  This  is  cast  off  at  will,  the  creature  creeps  about 
for  short  distances,  and  then  reattaches  itself.  Finally 
it  is  large  enough  to  burrow,  and  immediately,  on  cov- 
ering itself,  spins  a  byssus  which  it  attaches  to  sand 
grains  or  pebbles  in  the  burrow  walls.  As  in  Mya,  the 
object  of  this  is  to  prevent  the  animal  from  being  washed 
away  from  the  point  where  it  is  lodged.  The  byssus 
gland  remains  as  a  functional  organ  until  the  quahaug  at- 
tains a  length  of  at  least  nine  millimeters.  In  larger  in- 
dividuals it  seems  to  have  disappeared. 

The  first  experiments  made  on  the  growth  of  Venus 
were  conducted  in  1901  on  the  north  shore  of  Long 
Island.  In  order  to  obtain  as  much  security  as  possible 
against  trespassers,  permission  was  obtained  from  an 
oysterman  to  use  a  portion  of  an  oyster  bed  that  could  be 
watched.  Though  growing  oysters  were  thickly  planted 
on  the  surrounding  bottoms,  there  appeared  to  be  an 
abundance  of  food,  and  the  rate  of  growth  obtained 
probably  represents  fairly  the  powers  of  increase  pos- 
sessed by  the  quahaug  on  ordinary  bottoms  near  a  beach 
line. 

As  many  and  as  diverse  conditions  as  circumstances  al- 
lowed were  selected  in  placing  the  beds.  Some  were  made 
on  the  beach  between  tide  lines,  and  others  where  they 
would  be  continually  submerged.  Several  observations 
have  made  it  seem  probable  that,  as  might  be  expected, 


The  Hard  Clam  325 

bivalves  obtaining  food  continually  will  grow  more  rap- 
idly than  those  that  are  exposed  at  low  tide.  It  proved 
to  be  true  in  this  case.  The  currents  were  strong,  but 
much  the  same  on  all  beds. 

The  belief  prevails  among  clammers  that  the  fully 
grown  quahaug  sometimes  leaves  its  shallow  burrow  and 
creeps  for  some  distance  before  burrowing  again,  and 
that  in  this  way  it  may  effect  a  considerable  migration. 
At  least  one  account  of  this  supposed  habit  has  been  pub- 
lished. "  On  these  bottoms  of  sand  and  mud,"  it  runs, 
"  the  clam  spends  most  of  its  time  in  crawling  about  with 
the  shell  upright  and  partly  exposed.  It  can  travel  pretty 
fast,  and  leaves  behind  it  a  well-plowed  furrow."  This 
might  be  assumed  to  be  true  from  the  fact  that  it  pos- 
sesses so  large  and  powerful  a  foot.  Some  fresh  water 
clams  have  this  habit  well  developed,  but  hundreds  of 
quahaugs  used  in  this  experiment  remained  for  six 
months  where  they  were  planted.  The  fact  that  they 
move  about  very  little  if  at  all  was  later  verified  by  ex- 
tensive experiments  in  which  the  creatures  were  under 
observation  at  all  times  of  the  year.  It  seems  certain 
from  the  many  observations  that  have  now  been  made  on 
this  point  that  the  future  culturist  need  have  no  fear  that 
his  planted  quahaugs  will  leave  him  of  their  own  ac- 
cord. 

But  at  the  time  of  the  first  experiment  such  a  result 
was  feared,  and  in  order  to  forestall  it  beds  below  low 
tide  were  covered  and  walled  in  with  wire  netting.  The 
small  quahaugs  were  planted  during  the  first  week  in 
July,  and  when  the  beds  were  dug  in  the  last  week  in  De- 
cember, the  netting  showed  no  signs  of  having  been  dis- 
turbed. Beds  between  tide  lines  were  not  thus  screened 
and  none  of  the  clams  had  moved  beyond  their  limits, 


326  Our  Food  Mollusks 

which  had  been  marked  by  tagged  staples  driven  into  the 
ground. 

The  results  of  six  months  of  growth  during  the 
warmer  part  of  the  year  may  briefly  be  stated  as  fol- 
lows : — Continually  submerged,  quahaugs  one  and  a 
quarter  inches  long  when  planted,  increased  in  volume 
in  one  bed  two  hundred  and  twenty-two  per  cent,  in  six 
months.  It  is  possible  that  the  increase  might  have  been 
somewhat  greater  here  if  the  bed  had  not  been  almost 
entirely  surrounded  by  great  numbers  of  oysters  that  con- 
sume the  same  food. 

The  increase  was  less  in  other  beds  in  the  same  local- 
ity. For  example,  clams  one  and  three-eighths  inches 
long  increased  only  seventy-eight  per  cent,  in  volume. 
Here,  however,  the  wire  netting  exposed  above  the  bot- 
tom had  become  the  lodging-place  of  an  abundant  growth 
of  sea-lettuce  (Ulva),  which  flattens  down  in  a  current 
so  as  to  prevent  free  access  of  the  food-bearing  stream. 
The  effect  of  this  mat  of  sea-weed  in  preventing  the 
growth  of  hard  and  soft  clams  alike  has  been  noted  care- 
fully in  many  cases.  It  should,  however,  cause  little 
trouble  to  the  culturist,  for  it  may  easily  be  removed  by 
a  little  raking. 

Where  everything  seemed  to  have  been  favorable  on 
the  beds  between  tide  lines,  quahaugs  varying  from  one 
and  a  half  to  one  and  a  quarter  inches  in  length  showed 
an  increase  in  volume  ranging  from  one  hundred  and 
fifty-five  to  two  hundred  and  fifty-five  per  cent. 

In  1904  extensive  experiments  on  the  growth  of  Venus 
were  begun  by  Mr.  Belding  for  the  Massachusetts  Fish 
and  Game  Commission,  and  these  were  carefully  and  con- 
tinuously pursued  for  several  years  following. 

Mr.    Belding   has    found   that   growth    nearly   ceases 


The  Hard  Clam  327 

about  the  first  of  November,  and  does  not  begin  again 
until  about  the  first  of  May,  reaching  its  maximum  in 
August.  The  precise  time  when  growth  ceases  in  the 
cold  waters  of  the  northern  coast  varies  with  the  weather. 
When  November  is  unusually  milcl  and  warm,  there  is 
some  growth,  but  it  is  not  extensive.  There  appears  to 
be  no  growth  after  the  first  of  December  in  any  year. 
There  is  every  reason  to  believe,  however,  that  farther 
south  the  growing  season  is  longer  than  in  New  Eng- 
land, and  that  where  it  never  becomes  cold,  as  in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  it  is  continuous. 

Few  figures  showing  the  percentage  of  increase  in 
volume  in  these  experiments  are  yet  available,  but  it  has 
been  found  that  under  very  favorable  conditions  the  size 
of  the  "  little  neck  " — which  is  about  two  inches  in 
length — is  attained  in  a  little  more  than  two  years  after 
the  egg  is  fertilized,  but  on  some  of  the  less  favorable 
beds  where  eel-grass  had  prevented  the  flow  of  water, 
it  was  estimated  that  as  many  as  eight  years  would  be  re- 
quired to  produce  a  two  inch  little  neck.  It  is  believed, 
also,  that  quahaugs  more  than  three  inches  long  are  at 
least  four  years  old,  and  in  cases  where  conditions  have 
not  been  favorable,  more  than  that.  Thus  it  is  not  pos- 
sible to  make  a  statement  concerning  the  growth  of 
Venus  that  will  apply  in  all  cases,  because  so  much  de- 
pends on  local  conditions.  In  a  general  way  it  may  be 
stated  that  the  average  rate  of  growth  is  not  so  rapid  as 
that  of  Mya,  but  more  so  than  that  of  the  oyster  in  cold 
northern  waters. 

As  in  all  previous  clam  experiments,  the  most  im- 
portant condition  governing  growth  was  shown  to  be 
the  advantage  of  a  current  of  considerable  strength. 
Doubtless  this  is  true  with  all  bivalves.  In  certain  fa- 


328  Our  Food  Mollusks 

vored  places,  shallow  boxes  or  racks,  containing  three  or 
four  inches  of  sand,  were  suspended  one  above  another, 
and  clams  planted  in  them  grew  very  rapidly,  many  gain- 
ing an  inch  in  length  in  five  months.  It  was  found  pos- 
sible to  obtain  good  results  in  a  strong  current  even 
when  young  clams  were  placed  close  together  in  these 
boxes.  This  "  intensive  farming  "  possesses  many  ob- 
vious advantages.  By  selecting  a  locality  in  which  a 
strong  current  carries  much  food,  a  maximum  growth 
could  be  attained  with  large  numbers  of  clams,  for  much 
water  above  the  bottom  could  be  utilized.  Such  clams 
could  easily  be  examined,  and  a  market  demand  for  a 
definite  size  could  be  met  with  little  labor.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  might  be  practical  difficulties  in  handling 
continually  submerged  racks,  and  the  expense  of  the 
method  might  be  prohibitive.  But  interesting  results 
might  come  of  rack  culture  if  it  were  practised  on  a  com- 
mercial scale,  and  it  is  worth  an  extensive  trial  in  more 
than  one  locality. 

The  hard  clam  is  apparently  as  little  affected  by  dif- 
ferences in  the  salinity  of  water  as  is  Mya.  It  was  found 
to  reproduce  normally  and  to  grow  in  waters  in  which 
salinity  varied  from  1.009  to  1.025.  The  oyster  is  much 
more  sensitive  to  these  variations.  Outside  much  nar- 
rower limits  than  these,  its  general  condition,  and  espe- 
cially its  power  of  reproduction,  are  seriously  affected. 

Natural  enemies  of  the  adult  are  few,  and  do  little 
damage.  Starfish  destroy  some,  and  a  few  are  killed  by 
one  or  two  boring  mollusks  (Figure  64).  Probably 
there  are  heavy  losses  among  the  young  before  they  are 
able  to  burrow,  but  once  in  the  bottom,  they  are  secure. 

Sufficient  preliminary  biological  work  has  been  done 
to  make  it  certain  that  the  quahaug  industry,  the  newest 


The  Hard  Clam  329 

of  the  shell-fish  industries,  but  already  fast  declining, 
might  be  firmly  established  and  greatly  developed  by  arti- 
ficial culture.  The  demand  for  the  adult  clams  is  grow- 
ing rapidly,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  danger  that  the 
"  little  neck  "  will  lose  its  popularity  and  again  become 
only  a  young  quahaug.  Present  prices  for  this  baby 
clam  are  high,  the  clammer  sometimes  receiving  four  dol- 


FIG.  64.— Shell  of  a  ''little  neck" 
clam,  Venus,  showing  a  hole 
bored  over  the  visceral  mass  region 
by  an  oyster  drill,  Urosalpinx. 

lars  a  bushel  for  his  catch,  while  one  who  orders  them  on 
the  half-shell  at  a  Boston  or  New  York  restaurant,  pays 
for  them  at  the  rate  of  fifty  dollars  a  bushel.  If  their 
production  were  to  increase,  the  price  received  by  the 
clammer  might  be  lowered,  but  because  of  the  merits  of 
this  form  of  food,  the  demand  for  it  must  continue  to  be 
greater. 

The  control  of  the  present  quahaug  industry  in  New 
England  is  very  generally  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
selectmen  of  shore  towns.  Too  often  the  responsibility 
of  supervising  and  intelligently  regulating  the  raking  of 
natural  beds  is  entirely  neglected.  In  no  case,  appar- 


33°  Our  Food  Mollusks 

ently,  has  artificial  production  been  encouraged,  and  the 
only  effort  to  conserve  the  supply  has  been  to  declare  a 
close  season  now  and  then.  There  are  no  provisions  for 
forcing  negligent  towns  to  care  for  their  shell-fisheries, 
and  losses  from  such  negligence  fall  on  the  public.  The 
rights  of  citizens  of  the  states,  so  far  as  the  clam  in- 
dustries are  concerned,  have  been  given  to  the  few  liv- 
ing on  the  shore.  Not  only  have  they  in  most  cases 
failed  to  take  advantage  of  these  great  and  special  priv- 
ileges, but  they  have,  with  almost  perfect  unanimity,  de- 
clared that  "  outsiders  "  shall  be  allowed  no  privileges 
whatever  on  their  shores. 

It  thus  appears  that  laws  are  urgently  needed  in  the 
north  Atlantic  states  that  will  permit  of  the  artificial  cul- 
ture of  the  quahaug  by  any  citizen  of  the  commonwealth 
formulating  such  laws.  It  would  be  better  for  each 
state  possessing  bottoms  suitable  for  quahaug  culture  to 
make  them  accessible  by  lease  or  sale  to  non-residents. 
This  has  proved  to  be  good  policy  in  the  management  of 
the  oyster  industry.  Unfortunately  the  time  seems  not 
to  be  near  when  such  a  condition  may  be  attained  in  New 
England. 

When  quahaug  culture  is  attempted  on  a  large  scale, 
there  will  be  some  disadvantages  as  compared  with  soft 
clam  or  oyster  culture.  Chief  among  these  will  be  the 
difficulty  of  obtaining  large  quantities  of  seed.  The  set 
seems  usually  to  be  scattered.  One  often  finds  on  an  ex- 
posed beach  or  flat  great  accumulations  of  very  small  bi- 
valves having  a  superficial  resemblance  to  young  qua- 
haugs,  and  which  the  natives  of  the  shore  usually  con- 
fuse with  them.  Dense  segregations  of  the  young  of 
Venus  seem  not  to  be  so  common  as  those  of  Mya,  though 
why  this  should  be  so  is  difficult  to  explain,  for  the  habit 


The  Hard  Clam  331 

of  settling  from  the  swimming  condition  seems  to  be 
identical  in  the  two  cases.  There  are  certain  isolated 
coves  and  bays  on  the  New  England  shore,  however, 
where  young  quahaugs  are  sometimes  raked  up  in  vast 
numbers — usually  to  be  sold  for  planting  in  Long  Island, 
a  practice  that  has  recently  been  begun  there.  Thus  the 
price  of  seed  may  be  high,  though  the  clam  is  abundant 
enough  in  its  scattered  distribution. 

It  will  probably  be  found,  however,  that  the  few  dis- 
advantages are  more  than  counterbalanced  by  peculiar 
advantages.  Venus,  for  example,  is  one  of  the  hardiest 
of  bivalves.  It  is  not  only  peculiarly  insensible  to 
changes  in  temperature  and  salinity,  but  it  withstands 
long  exposure  to  the  air,  even  in  hot  weather,  without 
apparent  injury.  Shipments  to  distant  markets  or  plant- 
ing grounds  may  thus  be  effected  without  loss.  Again, 
there  is  a  market  during  the  entire  year,  and  on  the 
greater  part  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  weather  conditions  would  not  interfere  seriously 
with  raking. 

The  territory  available  for  quahaug  culture  also  is 
greater  than  for  that  of  the  soft  clam.  The  only  labor 
involved  will  be  that  of  taking  the  seed  and  marketable 
individuals  from  their  shallow  burrows  in  the  bottom. 
Planting  in  all  cases  may  be  accomplished  as  easily  as  in 
oyster  culture,  for  quahaugs  of  all  sizes  are  able  to  bur- 
row when  thrown  on  the  bottom. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  speculate  on  the  actual  returns 
that  should  be  expected  by  an  energetic  and  reasonably 
cautious  planter,  who  might  now  be  able  to  lay  out  his 
quahaug  or  little  neck  beds  in  New  England  waters. 
When  ordinarily  favorable  conditions  obtain,  he  would 
plant  on  an  acre  at  least  one  hundred  and  twenty  bushels 


332  Our  Food  Mollusks 

of  seed  clams  averaging  one  and  three-quarters  inches  in 
length.  For  this  seed  he  might  have  to  pay  five  dollars 
a  bushel,  though  often  he  would  be  able  to  obtain  it  for 
less.  These  young  clams,  for  which  he  has  paid  six  hun- 
dred dollars,  he  plants  in  early  May.  By  the  first  of  No- 
vember following  they  should  average  two  and  a  half 
inches  in  length,  and  would  have  increased  in  volume  to 
six  hundred  bushels.  These  he  should  be  able  to  sell  for 
at  least  three  dollars  a  bushel,  or  eighteen  hundred  dol- 
lars. After  deducting  the  amount  spent  in  raking, 
which  would  vary  according  to  the  depth  of  water  and 
the  character  of  the  bottom,  he  would  in  any  case  receive 
a  relatively  large  profit  from  his  investment.  The  pro- 
duction on  some  bottoms  would  not  be  so  great  as  this, 
but  on  many  others  it  would  be  considerably  greater. 

The  hard  clam  is  widely  and  favorably  known  in  the 
northern  states,  while  in  the  South,  in  the  warm  waters 
of  which  it  is  much  more  at  home,  it  is  rarely  seen  in 
the  markets,  and  in  many  regions  is  entirely  unknown. 
Where  it  is  now  consumed,  the  demand  for  it  is  rapidly 
increasing,  and  when  it  has  made  its  way  into  southern 
and  far  interior  markets,  a  new  and  extensive  industry 
will  without  doubt  appear  on  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts 
over  an  area  that  is  now  practically  unproductive. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
THE  SCALLOPS 

MONG  the  most  beautiful  objects  to  be  found 
on  the  sea  shore  are  the  shells  of  scallops  that 
are  often  thrown  above  the  reach  of  the  water 
by  the  waves  of  storms.  Many  species  are 
found  in  temperate  and  warm  parts  of  the  world,  and 
the  rounded  outline,  the  radiating  grooves,  or  the  ex- 
quisitely varied  coloration  of  the  shell,  have  attracted  at- 
tention since  the  earliest  times.  It  was  often  worn  to 
indicate  that  the  bearer  had  visited  the  shores  of  distant 
countries.  The  holy  Palmer,  brought  before  Lord  Mar- 
mion,  had  come 

"  From  Salem  first  and  last  from  Rome ; 
One   that   hath    kissed    the   blessed   tomb, 
And  visited  each  holy  shrine, 
In  Araby  and  Palestine  " 

"  He  shows  St.  James'  cockle  shell " 
"  The  scallop  shell  his  cap  did  deck." 

And  after  an  adventurous  and  tempestuous  life,  when 
the  time  had  arrived  for  his  celestial  pilgrimage,  Raleigh 
sang 

"  Give  me  my  scallop  shell  of  quiet, 
My  staff  of  faith  to  walk  upon." 
333 


334  Our  Food  Mollusks 

Lovers  of  the  beautiful  are  not  confined  to  civilized 
peoples,  and  we  find  that  even  ancient  savages  in  various 
parts  of  the  world  employed  the  shells  of  scallops  in  many 
of  their  rites  and  ceremonies. 

Every  one  is  familiar  with  these  shells,  which  are  used 
in  many  kinds  of  decorations,  and  are  figured  in  dec- 
orative drawings  and  paintings;  but  comparatively  few, 
perhaps,  are  aware  that  the  animals  that  form  them  are 
eagerly  sought  in  many  countries  for  a  more  utilitarian, 
and — in  the  minds  of  those  who  may  be  inclined  to  agree 
with  a  modern  French  neurasthenic  who  has  declared 
eating  to  be  one  of  the  most  disgusting  of  human 
functions — less  noble  purpose,  that  of  being  used  for 
food.  However  one  may  regard  the  function  of  eating, 
he  has  found  it  to  be  necessary,  and  has  developed  a 
taste  that  esteems  one  thing  above  another;  and  some  of 
those  who  have  come  to  regard  this  particular  power  of 
discrimination  in  themselves  as  an  art,  have  assured  us 
that  the  scallop  is  the  daintiest  of  all  the  foods  that  the 
waters  produce. 

The  reason  that  so  many  are  unfamiliar  with  the  scal- 
lop as  a  food  animal  is  that  until  recently  it  has  been  kept 
fresh  with  so  great  difficulty  that  it  has  been  shipped  only 
short  distances  from  the  shore.  The  secret  of  its  seem- 
ingly perishable  nature  lies  in  the  fact  that  four  and  a 
half  quarts  of  small,  yellowish  scallop  "  meats,"  if  soaked 
in  fresh  water  for  a  few  hours,  will  emerge  plump  and 
white — so  greatly  bloated,  in  fact,  that  they  now  fill  a 
seven  quart  measure.  Most  consumers  apparently  desire 
to  pay  for  plumpness  and  whiteness;  but  freshened  scal- 
lops are  very  perishable,  while  in  a  more  natural  state 
their  keeping  properties  at  the  low  temperatures  of  mod- 
ern refrigeration  are  nearly  if  not  quite  as  good  as  those 


The  Scallops  335 

of  un freshened  shucked  oysters.  If  they  feel  that  the 
bloating  of  scallops  is  necessary  to  the  trade,  it  would 
seem  that  dealers  might  ship  them  in  a  normal  state,  al- 
lowing agents  to  bring  about  the  required  pathological 
condition  after  they  had  reached  their  destination.  But 
the  fact  is  that  the  market  near  the  shore  is  sufficient  for 
the  present  scanty  supply,  prices  are  already  high,  at 
times  reaching  five  dollars  a  gallon  at  wholesale,  and  if 
scallops  were  to  be  sold  unfreshened,  a  still  greater  sum 
would  have  to  be  asked  for  them.  The  scallop  dredger 
has  a  good  reason  for  continuing  to  freshen  his  product, 
and  the  consumer  may  continue  to  live  in  ignorance  of 
the  nature  of  the  unspoiled  article. 

Those  who  are  familiar  with  the  scallop  as  it  is  ex- 
posed for  sale  in  cities  near  the  coast,  have  seen  only 
small,  white  cylinders  of  flesh,  for  the  part  that  is  eaten 
is  the  single  adductor  muscle,  the  remainder  of  the  body, 
tender  and  of  fine  flavor,  being  thrown  away,  or  at  best 
used  as  a  fertilizer.  That  this  is  a  great  sacrifice  appears 
from  the  fact  that  a  bushel  of  scallops  yields  but  two  and 
a  half  or  three  quarts  of  "  meats." 

Among  the  common  names  applied  to  the  form  in 
America  are  "  scallop,"  u  scollop,"  and  "  escallop,"  while 
on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  where,  however,  it  is  not  known 
as  a  food  mollusk,  it  is  called  a  clam.  In  England  such 
names  as  "  queens,"  "  frills,"  and  "  fan-shells "  are 
heard. 

Two  species,  Pecten  irradians  and  Pecten  tenuicos- 
tatus,  the  one  found  from  Cape  Cod  to  Texas,  the-  other 
north  of  the  cape,  are  captured  on  our  eastern  and 
southern  coasts.  The  warm  water  scallop  is  the  smaller, 
its  shell  attaining  a  maximum  diameter  of  about  three 
and  a  half  inches.  It  is  marked  by  radiating  grooves, 


336  Our  Food  Mollusks 

and  in  young  individuals  is  often  variously  and  beauti- 
fully colored.  This  form  is  much  the  most  common  in 
the  market.  The  northern  scallop  when  full  grown  pos- 
sesses a  shell  about  seven  inches  in  diameter,  that  is  with- 
out radiating  grooves  or  pigment.  It  is  now  so  difficult 
to  find  that  it  is  seen  in  few  markets  outside  the  state 
of  Maine. 

Pecten  irradians  inhabits  shallow  waters  near  the  shore 
line,  and  is  usually  found  where  eel-grass  is  abundant. 
The  reason  for  this  will  presently  appear.  Like  the  other 
members  of  the  genus,  it  is  in  many  respects  a  very 
highly  specialized  form  among  bivalves.  Along  its 
mantle  edge,  for  example,  are  many  complex  eyes  that 
are  visual  organs  of  surprising  acuteness.  The  creature 
has  the  habit  of  lying,  at  times,  on  the  surface  of  matted 
eel-grass,  and  on  being  approached,  becomes  alarmed, 
flaps  itself  off  of  its  support,  and  sinks  to  the  bottom. 
Like  a  few  other  bivalves,  the  adults  are  able  to  swim,  but 
in  a  very  peculiar  manner. 

Lying  on  the  bottom,  they  sometimes  may  be  observed 
to  snap  the  valves  of  the  shell  together,  and  water  being 
thus  ejected  from  the  mantle  chamber,  the  body  is  forced 
in  the  opposite  direction.  It  might  be  assumed  from  the 
examination  of  an  individual  held  in  the  hand  that  the 
animal  must  move  in  swimming  with  the  hinge  edge  of 
the  shell  forward,  but  quite  the  reverse  usually  is  true. 
It  may  be  puzzling  to  understand  why  the  expelled  water 
should  not  all  escape  from  the  edges  of  the  shell  opposite 
the  hinge  where  the  gape  is  widest ;  but  when  the  mantle 
folds  are  examined,  a  very  wide  and  thick  flap  is  found 
on  the  edge  of  each,  which,  when  the  water  in  the  cham- 
ber is  put  under  pressure  by  the  closing  of  the  shell,  is 
thrown  inward  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  its  escape 


The  Scallops 


337 


(Figure  65,  /  and  Figure  67,  m  /).  But  these  folds  are 
muscular,  and  on  the  closure  of  the  shell  they  bend  out- 
ward near  one  of  the  lobes  or  "  ears  "  of  the  shell  on  the 
hinge  side,  so  as  to  form  a  short  tube-like  aperture. 
Through  this  tube  the  jet  is  driven,  and 
the  body,  rotating  somewhat,  is  propelled 
in  the  opposite  direction.  Immediately  the 
shell  again  opens  and  closes,  and  another 
jet  is  driven  out,  but  this  time  near  the 
opposite  ear  of  the  shell.  Again  the  body 
is  slightly  rotated  and  driven  onward  at 
an  angle  to  the  first  course.  Alternately 
the  jets  are  discharged  from  near  one  ear 
and  then  the  other  in  rapid  succession,  and 
the  creature  rises  from  the  bottom  in  a 
zigzag  course  until  it  reaches  the  surface. 
This  is  represented  in  Figure  66.  Con- 
tractions then  ceasing,  it  settles  to  the 
bottom,  usually  several  feet  from  the 
starting  point.  If  this  performance  were 
repeated  many  times,  a  considerable  dis- 
tance might  be  covered,  and  it  has  been 
assumed  that  scallops  make  periodical 
and  concerted  migrations  from  shallow 
to  deep  water  and  back  again. 

This,  however,  almost  certainly  is  not  true,  though 
it  is  commonly  believed.  No  reliable  observer  has  ever 
asserted  that  he  has  seen  these  migrations.  On  the  other 
hand,  Mr.  Belding,  who  for  several  years  has  watched 
them  closely  at  all  seasons  where  they  grow  naturally, 
and  who  has  had  the  matter  of  their  supposed  migrations 
in  mind,  writes  that  they  have  remained  in  the  same 
places  the  year  around.  The  more  intelligent  of  the  scal- 


FIG.  65. — Cross 
section,  edge 
of  shell  O) 
and  mantle 
(m)  of  Pec- 
ten,  e,  eye ; 
/.flap  or  fold 
exte  n  d  i  n  g 
inward  from 
the  edge  of 
the  mantle. 


338 


Our  Food  Mollusks 


FIG.  66.— Course  taken  by  Pecten  in  rising  from  the  bottom  by 
successive  closures  of  the  shell. 

lop  dredgers  hold  the  same  view  of  the  matter.     It  does 
sometimes  happen  that  scallops   in  shallow  water   are 


The  Scallops  339 

segregated  near  the  shore  line,  or  even  thrown  on  a  beach, 
being  rolled  by  dragging  waves  in  a  gale,  but  such  a 
movement  is  not  what  is  meant  by  migration. 

The  small  Pecten  irradians  is  marketed  in  the  fall  and 
early  winter,  and  in  very  shallow  water  is  taken  by 
means  of  an  implement  known  as  a  "  pusher,"  a  rectan- 
gular iron  frame  about  three  feet  wide  with  a  bag  at  the 
back,  which  is  pushed  over  the  bottom  by  a  handle.  In 
water  too  deep  for  wading  it  is  secured  by  means  of  light 
dredges  towed  in  ten  or  fifteen  feet  of  water  by  cat- 
boats,  or  more  frequently,  perhaps,  by  small  gasoline 
launches. 

South  of  Cape  Cod  this  small  scallop  is  found  at  Nan- 
tucket,  all  along  the  south  side  of  the  cape,  in  Buzzards 
and  Narragansett  bays,  and  in  some  of  the  bays  on  the 
shores  of  Long  Island.  It  was  formerly  abundant  on 
both  shores  of  Long  Island  Sound,  but  now  is  rarely 
found.  Everywhere  in  northern  waters  it  has  been 
greatly  reduced  in  numbers,  like  the  clams.  In  the  Caro- 
lina sounds  it  is  taken  for  a  few  of  the  local  markets,  but 
is  seldom  disturbed  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  In  1904 
great  numbers  were  discovered  by  the  writer  on  the  eel- 
grass  covered  bottoms  west  of  the  Chandeleur  Islands — 
enough  of  them,  probably,  to  support  an  industry  of  con- 
siderable magnitude.  They  are  not  at  all  known,  how- 
ever, in  the  neighboring  markets. 

The  northern  scallop  inhabits  deep  waters,  most  of  the 
best  known  beds  lying  at  a  depth  of  from  forty  to  sixty 
fathoms,  and  is  dredged  with  difficulty,  owing  to  the 
rocky  nature  of  the  bottom. 

Until  recently  little  was  known  of  the  life  histories  of 
either  of  our  Atlantic  Pectens,  though  in  the  case  of  the 
shallow  water  form  the  fishermen  had  made  some  ac- 


340  Our  Food  Mollusks 

curate  guesses  as  to  the  time  of  breeding  and  the  length 
of  life.  We  now  possess  a  thorough  study  of  the 
anatomy  and  development  of  the  giant  scallop  by  Pro- 
fessor G.  A.  Drew,  and  an  interesting  investigation  of 
the  development  and  habits  of  the  shallow  water  form 
has  been  made  by  Mr.  D.  L.  Belding. 

In  the  giant  scallop  the  sexes  are  separate,  but  the 
shallow  water  form  is  hermaphroditic.  In  both  cases 
the  ovaries  are  easily  recognized  without  dissection  dur- 
ing the  breeding  season  by  their  bright  salmon-pink  color. 

The  spawning  season  of  Pectan  irradians  begins  about 
the  first  of  June  in  New  England,  and  ends  in  early 
August,  weather  causing  some  variation.  Probably  it 
begins  earlier  in  warm  southern  waters.  The  ripe  eggs 
of  this  form,  one  four-hundredth  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
are  extruded  into  the  water,  and  there  meet  the  male 
cells.  Usually  in  hermaphroditic  animals  one  set  of  sex- 
ual cells  is  matured  and  discharged  before  the  other,  ap- 
parently in  order  that  self-fertilization  may  be  prevented. 
But  in  an  aquarium  a  scallop  sometimes  discharges  ova 
and  spermatozoa  together,  and  these  unite  with  each 
other.  More  frequently  one  set  is  discharged,  and  then, 
after  an  interval,  the  other,  and  under  natural  conditions 
cross-fertilization  would  most  often  occur. 

The  segmentation  of  the  fertilized  egg  is  of  the  same 
general  character  as  that  of  oyster  and  clam  eggs.  It 
also,  from  fifteen  to  twenty  hours  after  fertilization,  be- 
comes a  swimming  embryo  or  veliger  and,  suspended  by 
the  activities  of  its  cilia,  is  carried  about  by  water  cur- 
rents. The  velum  or  prominence  bearing  swimming  cilia 
has  made  its  appearance,  and  a  shell  is  secreted  that  is 
soon  large  enough  to  cover  the  entire  body.  The  velum 
is  extended  out  beyond  the  shell  margin  when  in  func- 


The  Scallops  341 

tional  activity.  Whenever  the  creature  is  disturbed,  it, 
like  the  veligers  of  other  bivalves,  immediately  with- 
draws the  velum  within  the  shell,  which  closes,  and  sinks. 
Sometimes  it  resumes  its  course  before  settling  far,  but 
even  if  it  reaches  the  bottom  it  may  soon  rise. 

During  the  last  three  days  of  the  short  swimming  or 
veliger  period,  a  foot  begins  to  develop  on  the  under  side 
of  the  body.  It  becomes  relatively  very  large,  and  its 
first  function  is  a  curious  one.  Being  extended  from  be- 
tween the  valves  of  the  shell  to  a  distance  equal  to  that 
of  two-thirds  of  the  body,  its  end  is  seen  to  be  covered 
with  cilia,  the  movements  of  which  begin  to  aid  in  swim- 
ming, and  thus  supplement  the  woFk~~per formed  by  the 
velum.  The  latter  organ  soon  atrophies  and  disappears, 
and  the  creature  ceases  to  spend  the  greater  part  of  the 
time  afloat.  But  it  is  still  able  to  swim,  and  frequently 
rises  from  the  bottom — not  yet,  however,  by  the  flapping 
movement  of  the  shell  valves  that  characterizes  the  swim- 
ming of  the  adult,  nor  by  the  action  of  the  foot  cilia 
alone,  for  the  body  soon  becomes  too  heavy  to  be  moved 
by  them  unaided — but  by  a  paddling  motion  of  the  foot. 
Swimming  by  a  paddle-like  foot  action  is  sometimes  prac- 
tised by  adults  of  other  species  of  bivalves  (Mactra, 
Ensis,  Solenomia,  Yoldia),  and  the  habit  is  retained  by 
the  young  Pecten  for  some  time.  Gradually  it  begins 
to  swim  by  the  shell,  being  aided  for  a  time  by  the  foot, 
but  as  the  animal  grows,  the  latter  organ  becomes  rela- 
tively small  and  ceases  to  have  a  part  in  the  performance 
of  this  function. 

Thus  in  early  life  the  foot  aids  in  swimming  in  two 
ways — by  the  action  of  its  cilia  and  by  paddling:  but  in 
addition  to  this,  it  performs  two  functions — that  of  spin- 
ning the  byssus  for  attachment,  and  of  creeping.  Prob- 


342  Our  Food  Mollusks 

ably  even  in  the  late  embryonic  swimming  stage  a  byssus 
gland  is  developed  at  its  base  and  becomes  functional,  for 
very  small  individuals  hardly  more  developed  than  the 
late  swimming  forms,  have  been  found  attached  to  float- 
ing objects,  and  Mr.  Belding  has  witnessed  somewhat 
older  individuals,  about  one  millimeter  in  diameter, 
swimming  at  the  surface  of  the  water  with  foot  ex- 
tended, and  has  seen  them  attach  by  the  sucker-like  end 
of  the  foot  on  coming  in  contact  with  the  sides  of  the 
aquarium.  A  moment  later  they  were  seen  to  be  at- 
tached by  byssus  threads. 

By  a  groove  on  its  under  surface,  the  foot  forms  this 
thread  from  the  byssus  secretion,  and  attaches  its  end. 
While  at  first  the  thread  is  single,  the  number  of  strands 
in  the  organ  increases  as  the  animal  grows,  and  it  be- 
comes a  firm  tether.  Figure  67  shows  its  appearance 
and  relative  size  in  an  individual  about  half  an  inch  in 
diameter.  The  deep  notch  shown  in  the  shell  where  its 
lobe-like  wing  joins  the  main  body,  is  for  the  accom- 
modation of  the  attached  byssus.  This  bundle  of  threads 
is  cast  off  at  will  from  its  proximal  end,  and  new 
threads  are  formed  when  needed.  From  time  to  time 
attachment  occurs  during  the  greater  part  of  the  scallop's 
life,  though  infrequently  in  full-grown  individuals. 

It  should  be  observed  that  the  habit  of  very  early 
byssus  attachment  seems  to  have  a  direct  bearing  on  the 
distribution  of  scallops,  for  it  accounts  for  the  fact  that 
they  are  so  frequently  found  in  grass-covered  bottoms. 
Usually  in  the  early  summer  great  numbers  appear  at- 
tached to  the  blades  of  eel-grass  with  which  they  may 
have  come  in  contact  while  swimming,  and  to  which  they 
have  fastened,  as  to  the  glass  of  the  aquarium.  The  long 
blades  of  this  plant,  rooted  in  the  bottom,  seem  to  be  both 


The  Scallops 


343 


detrimental  and  useful  to  the  scallops,  detrimental  be- 
cause their  mass  checks  the  food-bearing  currents,  and 
useful  because  they  undoubtedly  offer  great  protection 
by  preventing  the  washing  away  of  these  light  bodies  in 


FIG.  67. — Pecten  one-half  inch  in  diameter,  a  m,  adductor 
muscle;  b,  byssus;  c,  eye  on  mantle  edge;  /,  foot;  g,  gill;  h, 
heart;  /,  shell  ligament;  m,  mantle;  mf,  mantle  fold;  p, 
striated  inner  surfaces  of  the  palps. 

storms.  Pectens  that  have  had  only  scanty  protection 
of  this  kind  are  often  thrown  up  by  waves  to  die  on 
beaches.  This  probably  is  the  explanation  of  the  fact 
that  the  best  scalloping  grounds  are  on  eel-grass  covered 
bottoms.  They  also  attach  in  deeper  water,  though  in 
smaller  numbers,  to  stones,  shells,  and  other  bodies. 
Long  after  they  have  passed  the  embryonic  stage,  they 


344  OUT  Food  Mollusks 

may  reach  the  grass  blades  above  the  bottom,  for  they 
still  continue  to  swim  from  time  to  time  by  the  paddling 
motion  of  the  foot,  and  then  by  the  shell,  and  during 
these  short  journeys  they  may  attach  on  striking  any 
solid  body.  They  may  perhaps  also  attain  a  lodgment 
above  the  bottom  by  creeping  up  the  grass  blades,  and 
this  is  a  function  of  the  foot  not  yet  described. 

When  the  small  scallop  settles,  on  the  disappearance  of 
the  velum,  the  foot  is  relatively  of  great  size,  covering  the 
entire  ventral  surface  of  the  body.  Frequently  the  ani- 
mal extends  it,  attaching  the  end  by  a  sucker-like  action ; 
then  by  a  contraction  of  the  foot,  the  body  is  drawn 
toward  this  point,  and  by  a  repetition  of  the  process  the 
young  Pecten  creeps  and  often  climbs  up  vertical  sur- 
faces. This  habit  is  continued  for  some  time,  and  dur- 
ing the  creeping  period,  of  course,  swimming  and  byssus 
attachment  are  also  practised. 

It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  Pecten  as  well  as  Mya 
and  Venus,  and  probably  other  bivalves,  possess  what 
may  be  called  the  creeping  stage,  a  definite  period  during 
which  they  employ  a  part  of  the  time  in  creeping  on 
the  ventral  surface  of  the  foot,  and  for  the  remainder  lie 
attached  to  various  objects  by  means  of  a  byssus,  which 
they  may  cast  off  and  reform  at  will,  and  also,  in  the  case 
of  Pecten,  in  swimming.  In  1891  incidental  mention 
in  papers  published  by  two  German  biologists  was  made 
of  the  fact  that  the  young  of  the  bivalve  Dreissensia  ex- 
hibited the  habit,  after  the  swimming  stage  and  before 
attachment,  of  creeping  on  the  bottom.  Details  of  this 
curious  habit,  however,  were  first  published  by  the  writer 
from  observations  made  on  the  soft  clam  Mya,  and  re- 
cently it  has  been  studied  more  thoroughly  in  Pecten 
and  Venus  by  Mr.  Belding.  As  the  habit  of  creeping 


The  Scallops  345 

seems  to  be  of  little  or  no  value  to  any  of  these  forms, 
except  possibly  to  Pecten,  and  as  the  foot  in  all  of  them 
is  at  this  stage  proportionately  a  very  large  organ, 
though  later  becoming  greatly  reduced  in  Mya  and  Pec- 
ten,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  adult  ancestral  form  of 
each  possessed  a  large  foot  capable  of  effecting  relatively 
long  journeys,  and  that  the  creeping  habit  here  exhibited 
by  the  young  of  their  modern  descendants  is  merely  a 
memory  of  that  ancient  practice.  Venus  still  retains  the 
large  foot  in  the  adult  condition,  but  in  the  light  of  the 
experiments  mentioned  in  the  previous  chapter,  seems, 
after  it  has  begun  to  burrow,  to  make  little  or  perhaps 
no  use  of  it  in  locomotion. 

On  account  of  the  depth  of  water  in  which  it  lives,  the 
early  period  in  the  life  of  the  giant  scallop  is  unknown. 
The  adult  seems  not  to  be  able  to  attach  itself,  though 
there  is  a  byssus  gland  in  the  foot ;  but  there  are  no  rea- 
sons for  doubting  that  the  young  has  the  same  habits  of 
creeping  and  attachment  that  are  found  in  its  smaller 
relative. 

Some  of  the  facts  concerning  the  growth  of  Pecten  ir- 
radians  are  of  great  interest  and  economic  importance. 
Increase  in  size,  after  the  scallop  has  settled  from  its  em- 
bryonic swimming  state,  is  fast  or  slow  according  as 
food-bearing  currents  are  favorable  or  not ;  but  growth  is 
most  rapid  in  August  and  September,  and  decreases 
steadily  as  the  water  becomes  colder.  When,  about  the 
first  of  December,  in  New  England  south  of  Cape  Cod,  it 
has  reached  50°  F.,  growth  ceases  altogether.  It  is  only 
resumed  when,  about  the  first  of  May,  the  temperature 
again  rises  above  that  point.  It  thus  appears  that  in  New 
England  there  are  five  months  in  the  year  when  the  scal- 
lop does  not  grow.  The  same  is  true  of  the  hard  clam, 


346  Our  Food  Mollusks 

and  it  would  be  interesting  to  know  if  these  forms  grow 
continuously  in  the  warm  waters  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
During  May  growth  is  rapid,  but  in  June  or  July,  when 
the  scallop  is  one  year  old,  it  begins  to  mature  and  dis- 
charge its  sexual  products.  So  great  is  the  tax  on  the 
creature's  energy  during  the  period  in  which  it  is  per- 
forming this  function,  that  its  growth  is  about  half  what 
it  had  been  in  May.  When  the  reproductive  period  is 
passed,  rapid  growth  is  resumed. 

Actual  increases  in  volume  during  known  periods  have 
not  been  calculated,  but  some  idea  of  the  rate  of  growth 
may  be  had  from  measurements  of  the  longer  axis  of  the 
shell  in  successive  periods.  Many  growth  experiments, 
carried  on  under  varying  conditions,  have  been  made  in 
Massachusetts.  They  show  the  average  length  of  the 
axis  of  scallops  spawned  on  July  i  to  be  about  one  and  a 
half  inches  on  December  i,  and  that  on  December  i  a 
year  later  these  scallops  will  possess  a  shell  about  two  and 
a  quarter  inches  across. 

There  have  been  various  speculations  on  the  normal 
length  of  life  of  bivalves,  but  only  in  the  warm  water 
scallop  have  we  any  positive  knowledge  of  it.  While 
both  of  the  edible  Atlantic  clams  are  known  to  live  four 
or  five  years,  and  probably  may  live  longer  under  favor- 
able circumstances,  fishermen  have  generally  held  the  be- 
lief that  the  scallop's  life  was  limited  to  two  years,  and 
very  careful  observations  have  proved  this  to  be  true. 
The  fact  was  ascertained  in  part  by  observing  great 
numbers  of  individuals  kept  under  normal  conditions  in 
large  inclosures.  Many  observations  were  also  made  on 
those*  living  among  entirely  natural  surroundings,  and 
altogether  the  data  conclusively  indicate  a  natural  life 
period  of  from  eighteen  to  twenty-six  months. 


The  Scallops  347 

Life  begins  in  June.  July,  or  early  August.  One  year 
from  its  beginning  the  scallop  normally  spawns.  It  lives 
on  until  about  the  first  of  the  following  March,  beyond 
which  time  there  are  very  few  chances  of  its  survival. 
Some  members  of  its  generation  perish  earlier,  the  great 
majority  die  with  it,  when  there  begin  to  be  some  promises 
of  spring,  while  a  very  few  companions,  undiscouraged 
even  by  a  New  England  winter,  are  able  to  reach  a  sec- 
ond spawning  season,  soon  after  which  they  also  perish. 

All  this  has  an  important  economic  bearing,  briefly  put 
by  Mr.  Belding  as  follows : — "  All  scallops  less  than  one 
year  old  must  be  protected  [by  law],  for  these  furnish 
practically  all  the  spawn  for  the  following  year.  Only 
scallops  under  this  age  need  protection.  ...  It  does 
no  harm  to  capture  scallops  more  than  one  year  old;  in 
fact,  it  would  be  an  economic  loss  if  they  were  not  taken, 
as  nearly  all  die  before  a  second  [dredging]  season." 

It  is  an  interesting  biological  fact  that  in  Pecten  ir- 
radians  we  have  an  instance  of  an  invertebrate  animal 
the  existence  of  which  beyond  its  breeding  time  is  of  no 
value  to  its  offspring,  yet  continuing  to  live  nearly  half 
its  life  after  that  period.  If,  from  the  fact  that  a  few 
live  to  breed  a  second  time,  it  may  be  supposed  that  all 
formerly  performed  the  reproductive  function  more  than 
once,  there  still  remains  to  be  explained  the  abbreviation 
of  the  life  period,  and  the  fact  that  it  now  ends  just  be- 
fore instead  of  just  after  the  reproductive  act,  a  condition 
that  might  possibly  be  detrimental  because  of  so  large  a 
food  consumption,  and  at  any  rate  certainly  is  not  useful 
to  the  species. 

Paley  undoubtedly  would  have  seen  in  this  an  evidence 
of  the  benevolence  of  nature  in  allowing  this  highly  or- 
ganized creature  to  live  on  into  a  placid  old  age  to  enjoy 


348  Our  Food  Mollusks 

the  pleasures  of  life  after  its  responsibilities  had  passed. 
The  convenience  of  an  older  method  of  interpreting 
natural  phenomena  is  sometimes  wistfully  recalled. 

If  laws  protecting  "  seed  "  scallops,  or  those  less  than 
a  year  old,  and  allowing  the  capture  of  those  above  that 
age,  should  be  passed  and  enforced  in  the  scallop  ter- 
ritory, how  would  it  be  possible  for  the  dredger  to  deter- 
mine the  age  of  individuals  in  his  catch?  For  it  fre- 
quently happens  that  seed  scallops  that  have  had  abun- 
dant food  are  larger  than  the  older  ones. 

There  is  a  very  interesting  way  in  which  this  may  be 
done  in  the  majority  of  cases.  When  the  growth  of  the 
shell  is  resumed  in  May,  a  line  is  made  around  its  margin 
where  the  new  shell  is  added  (Figure  66) .  This  is  usually 
distinct  and  remains  unaltered,  so  that  when  dredging  be- 
gins in  the  fall,  the  fisherman  may  know  that  all  scallops 
so  marked  have  passed  through  a  spawning  season.  In  the 
few  that  live  through  a  second  May,  another  line  is  added. 
In  some  individuals,  it  is  true,  the  line  is  indistinct,  and  in 
a  few  others  additional  lines  are  formed  from  some  tem- 
porary check  in  the  growth  at  various  seasons,  but  usu- 
ally the  line  clearly  records  the  resumption  of  growth  in 
May.  Probably  the  declining  scallop  fishery  would  be 
much  improved  if  laws  protecting  the  young,  which  have 
not  spawned,  were  strictly  enforced. 

The  enemies  of  Pecten  irradians  are  not  numerous  or 
very  destructive.  Scallops  are  occasionally  eaten  by 
ducks  and  geese,  and  some  are  destroyed  by  bottom- 
feeding  fishes.  They  are  attacked  by  the  oyster  drill,  a 
spiral-shelled  mollusk  that  files  a  hole  through  the  shell 
and  consumes  the  pulpy  mass  of  the  body.  These  drills, 
however,  appear  readily  to  be  shaken  off  by  the  vigorous 
movements  of  the  scallop,  for  partially  drilled  shells  are 


The  Scallops  349 

frequently  found.  The  most  dangerous  enemy  is  per- 
haps the  starfish,  which  is  quite  numerous  at  times  on 
some  scallop  beds. 

What  might  reasonably  be  hoped  for  in  scallop  culture 
is  still  difficult  to  state.  Great  numbers  have  been  kept, 
the  year  through,  confined  in  pens,  and  have  grown  rap- 
idly; but  when  free,  their  wanderings  apparently  are  not 
extensive,  so  that  it  might  not  be  necessary  to  plant  them 
in  inclosures.  Like  oysters  and  clams,  they  require  a 
good  circulation  of  water.  It  is  an  encouraging  fact 
that  young  scallops  for  planting  are  extremely  abundant 
in  certain  spots,  where  circumstances  favor  their  collec- 
tion. If  these  were  removed  and  deposited  on  other  bot- 
toms, where  they  might  be  less  exposed  to  ice  or  waves, 
it  might  sometimes  prove  to  be  profitable  to  the  planter; 
but  usually  there  would  be  little  advantage  in  this,  and 
at  the  present  time  it  does  not  appear  that  any  method 
of  artificial  culture  other  than  the  replanting  of  ex- 
hausted areas  would  be  worth  the  labor  involved  in  it. 


It  has  been  said  that  one  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
American  poor  is  that  they  must  have  the  best  and  most 
expensive  of  everything,  and  that  more  good  food  is 
wasted  in  the  United  States  than  in  any  other  country  on 
the  globe.  Certainly  there  are  many  edible  marine  mol- 
lusks,  some  of  them  occurring  in  great  abundance  on  our 
shores,  that  are  not  found  in  our  markets.  In  Europe, 
small  gasteropods  are  cooked  and  marketed  on  the  streets 
in  paper  bags  as  popcorn  or  roasted  peanuts  are  here. 
The  common  black  mussel  (Mytilus  edulis)  is  reared 
artificially  all  along  the  European  coast.  It  grows  rap- 
idly, and  immense  quantities  are  consumed.  It  occurs 


35°  Our  Food  Mollusks 

on  our  shallow  bottoms  and  tidal  areas  in  enormous  num- 
bers, and  is  a  great  pest  on  oyster  and  clam  beds.  Yet  it 
is  marketed  in  but  one  or  two  of  our  Atlantic  cities,  and 
is  eaten  for  the  most  part  by  foreigners.  A  near  rela- 
tive of  the  black  mussel,  Modiola,  is  quite  as  good  for 
fcod.  The  large  sea  clam  (Mactra),  and  the  razor 
clam  (Ensis)  of  the  Atlantic,  Gnathodon  and  Pholas 
of  the  Gulf,  sometimes  used  locally  for  food,  are  rarely 
found  in  any  market.  Of  the  last  mentioned,  only 
Gnathodon  is  very  abundant,  however.  It  is  true  that 
most  of  these  forms  have  a  sweetish  taste  that  is  not 
agreeable  to  many  persons,  and  intestinal  troubles  in  rare 
instances  result  from  eating  the  black  mussel. 

Among  fishes  there  are  many  of  fine  flavor  that  are  not 
esteemed,  and  others  perhaps  equally  good  that  are  never 
eaten  because  it  is  not  the  custom.  One  of  the  best  ex- 
amples of  wastefulness  in  the  matter  of  food  is  afforded 
by  the  dogfish,  a  small  shark  some  four  feet  in  length  so 
destructive  to  other  fishes,  and  so  numerous  that  it  has 
come  to  be  regarded  as  the  most  serious  menace  con- 
fronting our  marine  fisheries.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
thirty-seven  million  dogfish,  equal  in  weight  to  half  the 
total  catch  of  Massachusetts  fishermen,  were  taken  by 
them  in  1905.  These  pests  are  liberated  after  being 
caught,  because  at  present  they  are  of  no  value.  They 
are  almost  equally  numerous  everywhere  on  the  Atlantic 
coast,  and  are  exceedingly  abundant  on  the  Pacific  as 
well.  And  yet  the  flesh  of  the  dogfish  is  firm,  snow- 
white,  and  of  very  good  flavor — not  by  any  means  to  be 
regarded  as  inferior  when  one  is  unacquainted  with  its 
source — and  the  fact  that  such  enormous  numbers  of 
them  are  each  year  actually  taken  from  the  water  and 
cast  back  again,  is  a  sad  one  to  contemplate  in  view  of 


The  Scallops  351 

the  struggle  that  many  are  compelled  to  make  for 
food. 

It  would  be  fortunate  if  the  nation  might  wake  to  the 
fact  that  there  are  in  the  seas  immense  quantities  of 
palatable  and  wholesome  food  not  yet  utilized.  Custom 
interferes  with  the  introduction  of  such  food  in  many 
cases,  but  custom  in  this  matter  has  been  changed  many 
times  in  the  past,  and  it  is  easier  now  than  it  has  been 
to  consider  all  matters  on  their  merits. 

The  natural  supply  of  many  of  the  best  of  marine 
foods  has  been  misused  and  dissipated.  So  it  has  been 
with  useful  terrestrial  animals  and  plants.  To  have  di- 
rected nature  so  that  these  were  improved  for  human 
use  and  increased  almost  without  limit,  is  one  of  man's 
greatest  achievements.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
ocean  also  are  within  his  control,  as  he  has  already 
demonstrated  in  oyster  culture  and  in  the  artificial  prop- 
agation of  many  fishes.  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt 
that  the  harvest  of  many  other  marine  forms  will  eventu- 
ally become  many  times  more  abundant  than  the  most 
bountiful  that  nature  ever  produced  unaided. 


INDEX 


Acclimatization        of        eastern 
oysters      on      the      Pacific 
coast,  273 
Acephala,  meaning  of  the  term, 

21 
Adductor  muscles  of  the  oyster 

embryo,  47 
contraction    of,    to    clear    the 

mantle  chamber,  58 
Agricultural  schools  in  the  U.  S., 

purposes  of,  76,  298 
Albemarle    Sound,    marine    life 

absent  from,  230 
Alabama,  oyster  fields   of,  254 
Algae,  growth  of,  on  clam  beds, 

286 
Appalachicola  Bay,  natural  oyster 

beds  of,  253 
survey  of,  253 
Area  available  for  clam  culture 

in  Massachusetts,  314 
Area   devoted  to  oyster  culture 

in   Connecticut,  200 
in  Louisiana,  266 
in  New  York,  200 
in  Rhode  Island,  200 
in  Washington,  271 
Argument  from  design,  49 
Artificial     fertilization     of     the 

egg,  109 

experiments  on,  112 
in  clams,   116,  307 
failure  of,  115 

Atlantic  coast  the  greatest 
oyster  nursery  in  the  world, 
187 

inside  waterways  on,  269 
Attachment  of  the  oyster,  48 

Bamboo,    its    use    in    Japanese 

oyster  culture,  87 
Barnegat  Bay,  character  of,  204 

natural  oyster  beds  in,  178 
Bass,  black,  common  names  of, 

280 

striped,    introduction   of,    into 
the  Pacific,  270 


Bay  of  Fundy,  oysters  in,  177 
Bayou     Cook,     rate     of     oyster 
growth  in,  262 

Coquette,      rate      of      oyster 
growth  in,  262 

Schofield,      rate      of      oyster 

growth  in,  262 
Beaches,  rights  to,   181 
Belding,  Mr.  D.  L.,  on  the  de- 
struction   of    young    clams, 
291 

on    the    development    of    the 
hard  clam,  323 

on    the    development    of    the 
scallop,  337 

on    the   growth    of    the   hard 
clam,  326 

on  the  supposed  migrations  of 
the  scallop,  337 

on    the    reproduction    of    the 

scallop,  347 
Blue  Points,  188 
Boats,  capacities  of,  139 

gasoline,  140 

history  of  the  use  of,  in  the 
northern  field,  137 

modern  steam,  136,  199 

sail,  134 

sizes  of,   138 

tonging,  135 

used  in  oyster  culture,  134 
Boston    Harbor,   clam    flats   of, 

277 

Bottoms,  barren,  for  oyster  cul- 
ture, 101 

barren     clam,     in     Massachu- 
setts, 314 

character  of,  on  the  Atlantic 
shore,  94 

favorable    for   the   soft   clam, 
282 

nature  of,  in  Louisiana,  260 

paving  of,  95 

of  ponds  in  France,  83 

reclaiming    of,    84 

softness     of,     on     European 
shores,  82 


353 


354 


Index 


"  Breeders,"  use  of,  125 
Breeding  season  of  bivalves,  25 

of  oysters  in  France,  80 
Bridgeport,       experiments       on 

clam   culture   at,  305 
Brooks,  Professor  W.  K.,  chair- 
man of  the  Maryland  oyster 
commission,  212 
experiments    of,    on    artificial 

fertilization,  no 
on   the   oyster   production   of 

Chesapeake  Bay,  212 
oyster  investigations  of,  213 
quotation  from,  16 
Bucephalus,   an   oyster  parasite, 

163 
Bumpus,  Dr.  H.   C,  suggestion 

by,  299 
Buoys,    oyster,   in    Long    Island 

Sound,  197 
Burrowing    habits    of    bivalves, 

28,  284 
Butter   clam    of    Puget    Sound, 

320 
Buzzards  Bay,  oysters  in,  178 

scallops  in,  339 
Byssus   and   the   attachment   of 

bivalves,  28 
of  the  hard  clam,  324 
of  the  scallop,  342 
of  the  soft  clam,  293 

Cape    Cod,    absence    of    oysters 

north  of,  177 

Cascades,  water  power  in,  3 
Chandeleur    Islands,     form    of, 
258 

occurrence   of  the   little  neck 
on  the  west  shore  of,  9,  323 

Sound,  oyster  bottoms  of,  259 
Chesapeake  Bay,  decline  of  nat- 
ural oyster  beds  in,  214 

fragmentary     record     of    the 
oyster  industry  in,  208 

insecurity  of  title  in,  223 

most  prolific  of  oyster  waters, 
206 

natural  oyster  beds  of,  207 

oyster  production  of,  212 

shell  heaps  of,  176 

size  of,  207 

soft  clams  in,  278 


Cilia  on  the  body  of  the  oyster, 

62 
on    the    mantle    of    the    hard 

clam,  56 
movement    and    function    of, 

on  gill  and  palp,  37,  50,  54 
Civil    War,    effect    of,    on    the 
Virginia      oyster      industry, 
211 

and  the  seed  industry,  189 
Clam  (see  Soft  clam  and  Hard 

clam) 

as  a  carrier  of  disease,  166 
fork,  282,   283 
term,  applied  to  many  forms, 

280 

Clay,  use  of,  in  reclaiming  bot- 
toms, 84 

useful  on  clam  flats,  286 
Cleanliness    in    packing   oysters, 

203 

Cloaca,  30,  37 
Close    season,     absence     of,    in 

Louisiana,   266 
futility  of,  182 
in  Maine,  278 
Clutches,   positive   and   friction, 

140 

Coal,  waste  of,  3 
Collectors,  advantages  of,  119 
in  America,  118 
brush,  121 
crushed  rock,   121 
in  France,  78,  79,  80 
season  for  planting,  122 
slime  collection  on,  122 
small  shells  for,  in  Louisiana, 

261 
of  tin,   gypsum,   cement,   etc., 

122 
Colonial     charters     and     beach 

rights,   181 

Colonists,  records  of,  177 
Common  ownership  of  beaches, 

314 

Connecticut  the  leader  in  oyster 

culture,   191 

natural  oyster  beds  of,  179 
old    and    new    plans    of    state 

control    of    oyster    industry 

in,   191 

oyster  commission  of,  194 
oyster  laws  of,  193,  195,  196 


Index 


355 


Connecticut : 
as  a  source  of  seed  oysters, 

190 
Containers   for  the  shipping  of 

oysters,  141,  145 
Coon     oysters,     description     of, 

238 
possible  improvement  in  form 

of,  239 

in  Florida,  252 
as  seed  producers,  240 
"Coppery"  oysters,  252 
Corn   meal,    supposed    fattening 

of  bivalves   on,  63 
Corporations    in    the    northern 

oyster  field,  201 
fear  of,  in  Florida,  253 
Coste,  M.,  French  naturalist,  69 
successes   and   failures   of,   in 

oyster  culture,  76 
Crabs  as  oyster  enemies,  160 
Creeping  habits  of  bivalves,  27, 

344 

of  the  scallop,  344 
of  the  soft  clam,  293 
Culling,  beneficial  effects  of,  242 
laws  governing,  140 
in  Louisiana,  257 
Cultch    (see   Collectors) 
Currents  and  dense  segregations 

of  soft  clams,  292,  308 
and    food    distribution,   95 
influence  of,  on  the  growth  of 

the  hard  clam,  327 
determining      the      rate      of 
growth,  287 

Damariscotta  River   shell  heap, 

176 
DeBon,   M.,  and  French  oyster 

culture,  73 
Delaware  Bay,  deep  oyster  beds 

in,   198 

natural  oyster  beds  in,  178 
Density    (see   Salinity) 
Depth     of     water    over    oyster 

fields,  198 

Diatoms,  capture  of,  53 
distribution  of,  95 
as   food  organisms  consumed 

by  bivalves,  51,  287 
growth  of,  06 
Digestive  tract  of  bivalves,  20 


Dogfish,  as  a  food  animal,  350 
Dredge,  oyster,   131 
capacity  of,  134 
form  of,  133 
operation  of,  134,  135 
use  of,  forbidden  in  Virginia, 

215 

Drew,  Professor  G.  A.,  on  the 
development    of    the    giant 
scallop,  340 
Drumfish   as   an   oyster   enemy, 

158    - 
presence    of    in    the   Gulf   of 

Mexico,  263 
Duxbury  clam  flats,  278 

East  River,  natural  oyster  beds 

in,  178 

oystermen  originators  of  oys- 
ter culture  in  America,  179 
Eel-grass  at  Chandeleur  Islands, 

259 
destructive  to   the   soft  clam, 

285,  302 

why  scallops  appear  in,  342 
Eggs,  number  of,  in  the  oyster, 

24 
Essex  clam  culture  experiment, 

305 

European  oyster,  69 
Excretory    system    of    bivalves, 

23 

Female  cell   (see  Ovum) 
Field,    Dr.    G.    W.,    on    beach 

rights,  315 

Flavor  of  oysters,  143 
Flies  and  typhoid  fever,  167 
Florida,  fish  commission  of,  253 

law  enforcement  in,  253 

shell  heaps  'in,  252 
Food    organisms    consumed    by 

bivalves,  51 
Foot  of  bivalves,  27 

embryonic,  of  oyster,  47 

of  young  soft  clam,  291 

swimming  by,  in  group  of  bi- 
valves, 341 

Freight  charges  on  eastern  oys- 
ter seed,  272 
French  oyster  culture,  71 

history  of,  73 

modern  methods  of,  78 


356 


Index 


Freshening  of  oysters,    141 

and  typhoid  fever,  171 
Frost,   dangers   from,  in  oyster 
culture,  81 

Gas,  waste  of,  3 
Gills,     automatic     selection     of 
food  by,  in  Pecten,  64 

ciliation  of,  59 

as  collecting  organs,  29 

filaments  and  lamellae  of,  30 

functions  of,  36 

movements  of,  65 
Gloucester  clam  flats,  277 
Great  South  Bay,  hard  clams  of, 

323 

Green  oysters,  86 
Growth    of    bivalves    suspended 
in  winter  in  the  north  At- 
lantic, 54 

of  eastern  oyster  in  San  Fran- 
cisco Bay,  270 

of    oysters    in    low    tempera- 
tures, 96 

of  oysters,  time  required  for, 
in  Louisiana,  262 

rate  of,  in  Puget  Sound,  271 

of  the  scallop,  345 

of  the  soft  clam,  300-304 

time  necessary  for,  103 
Gulls   dropping  clams  to  break 

the   shells,  284 

Gulf  of  Mexico,  coast  of,  in 
Texas,  267 

rapidity  of  oyster  growth  in, 
264 

salinity  of  water  in,  54,  265 

spits  and  islands  of,  269 
Gulf    of    St.    Lawrence,    oysters 
in,  175 

Habituation  of  marine  food 
organisms  to  new  localities, 
8 

"  Harbor  plants,"  127 
Hard  clam  (Venus  mercenaria), 

age  attained  by,  327 
box  culture  of,  328 
burrowing  of,  322 
ciliation  of  mantle  of,  56 
ciliation  of  visceral   mass  of, 
59 


Hard  clam: 

at  the  Chandeleur  Islands,  323 
common  names  of,  280 
creeping  habit  of,  324 
culture,     area    available     for, 

331 

decrease  of,  323 
development    of,    324 
digestive  tract  of,  20 
distribution  of,  321,  322 
excretory  organs  of,  23 
foot  of,  27 
gills  of,  30 
growth    experiments    on,    324, 

326 
no   growth    of,    in   winter   in 

the  North,  327 
industry,       possible       returns 

from,  332 

present  condition  of,  330 
insensibility    of,    to    extremes 

of  temperature,  331 
mantle  of,  19 
marketing  of,  322 
names   given   to,  321 
natural  enemies  of,  328 
nervous  system  of,  26 
raking  of,  322 
seed,  330 

sexual  organs  of,  24 
shell  of,  13 
siphon  tubes  of,  20 
in  the  South,  323 
transplanted  in  Louisiana,  9 
vascular  system  of,  22 
wandering  habit  of  the,  325 
Hermaphroditism,   24,    no 
Hudson    River,    natural    oyster 

beds  in,   178 
Hydroid  growth  on  oysters,  163 

Ice,   action   of,   on  oyster  beds, 

241 

Indian   feasts,   176 
Ingersoll,    Mr.    Ernest,    on    the 

futility    of    a    close    season, 

182 
Islands       formed      by      oyster 

growth,  232 

Japanese  oysters,  87 

introduction  of,  into  America, 

275 


Index 


357 


Lake  Borgne,   freshness  of,  258 
Pontchartrain,     freshness     of, 

258 
Lease  of  bottoms,  objections  to, 

181 

of  clam  beaches  and  flats,  305 
in  Connecticut,   182 
in  Louisiana,  266 
Little     neck     clam     (see     Hard 

clam) 
Long     Island     Sound,     natural 

oyster  beds  in,   178 
protection  of  property  in,  186 
rate  of  oyster  growth  in,  262 
Long     neck     clam      (see     Soft 

clam) 
Louisiana,    achievements    of,    in 

oyster  culture,  266 
history  of  oyster  industry  in, 

265 

legislature  of,  265 
oyster  commission  of,  265 
publishes    oyster    laws    in    of- 
ficial journal,  267 
reserves  bottoms  for  scientific 

experiment,   267 
Lugger  used  in  Louisiana,  135 
Luggermen,  first  oyster  planters 

in  Louisiana,  260 
Lynnhaven  oysters,  188 

Mactra     solidissima,     the  '  "  sea 

clam,"   29 
Maine  shore,  clams  of,  278 

oysters    on,    175 
Malthus  on  population,  2 
Mangrove,    oysters    attached    to 

roots  of,  252 
Manhattan  Island,  natural  oyster 

beds  about,   178 

Male  cell   (see  Spermatozoon) 
Mantle,  ciliation  of,  56 
origin  of,  47  _ 
structure  of,  in  bivalves,  19 
Maryland,    oyster   laws   of,   213, 

225,  227 
definition  of  a  natural  oyster 

bed,  194 

early   oyster   industry   in,   210 
oyster    commission    of     1882, 

208 
shell-fish  commission  of,  225 


Market,   preparation   of   oysters 

for,  in  France,  87 
Market,  oyster,  141 
at  Baltimore,  209 
at  Biloxi,  254 
at  Mobile,  254 
at  New  Haven,  203 
at  New  York,  203 
at  Philadelphia,  204 
Massachusetts,     General     Court 

of,  316 
Fish    and   Game    Commission, 

experiments  by,  303,  313 
present  shell-fish  laws  of,  315 
Bay,    oyster    beds    of,    in    the 

i 7th  century,   178 
Matagorda  Bay,  oyster  industry 

of,  267 

Maturation  of  the  ovum,  43 
Middens,  kitchen,  176 
Mississippi,   oyster  territory  of, 

254 
Mississippi    River,    crevasses    in 

levees  of,  263 

waterways,     improvement     of, 

affecting  oyster  culture,  264 

Mobius   on   water  currents,  287 

Monopolies,    fear   of,    181,    224, 

266 

Moore,  Mr.  H.  F.,  statement  of, 
concerning  oyster  growth, 
262 

Mop  for  removing  starfish,   156 
Mt.    Desert    Island,    oysters    of, 

177 
Mucus,  of  gill,  use  of,  53 

of  other  surfaces,  56 
Mud    and    the     destruction    of 
oysters  north  of  Cape  Cod, 
177 
experiments  on  the  paving  of, 

in  Louisiana,  260 
on  the  Florida  coast,  253 
on  the  French  coast,  78 
preventing  the  feeding  of  bi- 
valves, 55 
and  the  starvation  of  oysters, 

234 
Mussel,   black,   as   a    food   mol- 

lusk,  349 
gills  of,  31 
as  an  oyster  enemy,  161 


358 


Index 


Mussel : 

ribbed,  as  a  food  mollusk,  349 
Mustard  plant,   descendants   of, 

Mya  arenaria  (see  Soft  clam) 
Mytilus     edulis      (see     Mussel, 
black) 

Narragansett        Bay,        natural 

oyster  beds  in,  178 
as  a  producer  of  seed  oysters, 

202 

rental  of  bottoms  in,  200 
scallops   of,   339 
Natural    oyster   beds,    definition 

of,  194 

destruction  of,  in  Europe,  71 
disappearance      of,      in      the 

North,  184 
extension  of,  241 
Natural    resources,     destruction 

of,  3 

Navy,  oyster,  of  Maryland,  217 
inadequacy    of,    in     Virginia, 

223 

Nervous  system  of  bivalves,  26 
New   Haven,  oyster  market  at, 

203 
New   York,    oyster   market    at, 

203 

Nippers,  131 
Nita  crevasse,  263 
Nomenclature   used    in   biology, 

280 

North  Carolina,  decline  of  nat- 
ural oyster  beds  of,  245 
hard  clams  of,  323 
oyster  field  of,  231 
November  gale  of  1898,  258 

Ohio,   decrease   in   farm   values 

of,  3 

Oosperm,  44 

Ostrea  virginica  (see  Oyster) 
Ovum,    structure    and    function 

of,  40 
Oyster,  absence  of  foot  in  adult 

of,  29 
beds,     natural,     between     tide 

lines,  234 

a  brackish  water  form,  230 
clusters,   culling  of,    102,   134, 
140 


Oyster : 

clusters,    formation    of,    126, 
261,  236 

as  a  disease  carrier,  166 

drill,  157 

eastern,     in     San     Francisco 
Bay,  270,  271 

European,  69 

fattening  of,  127 

gills  of,  34 

growth  and  the  formation  of 
islands,  232 

growth  in  muddy  waters,  235 

heart  of,  23 

mantle  of,  19 

navy,  217 

number  of  eggs  produced  by, 
24 

of  the  Pacific,  269 

planting,    100 

in   politics,  216 

Portuguese,  69 

for  seed,  size  of,  101 

segmentation  of  the  egg  of,  45 

shell  of,  17 

size  of,   188 

tongs,  129 

Oyster    culture,    adverse    condi- 
tions of,  in  Europe,  81 

in  America,  82 

on  barren  bottoms,  101 

beginnings    of,    in    Maryland 
and  Virginia,  223 

in  deep  water,  198 

definition  of,  100,  118 

early    attempts    at,    in    North 
Carolina,   248 

expense  connected  with,  129 

European     methods     of,     not 
possible  in  America,  92 

local  variations  of  method  in, 
124 

origin  of,  in  America,  179 

not  practised  in  North  Caro- 
lina, 248 

far  from  shore,  198 

transplanting  in,  125 

in  Washington,  270 

in  winter,  1^9 

Pacific  coast  line,  269 

native  oysters  of,  269 
Packing  industry,  origin  of,  in 
Maryland,  209 


Index 


359 


Packing  industry : 

origin  of,  in  Virginia,  211 
Paley's  Natural  Theology,  49 
Palps,  ciliation  of,  60 
as  organs  for  the  selection  of 
food    and    the    rejection    of 
objectionable  material,  61 
of  the  oyster,  21 
Pamlico  Sound,  depth  of,  243 
effect  of  storms  on,  247 
history  of  the  oyster  industry 

on,  243 
Maryland   oyster   dredges   on, 

244 

oyster  production  of,  245 
tides  in,  231,  243 
Paper  shell  clams,  282 
Pearls,  formation  of,  15 
Pecten  irradians   (see  Scallop) 
Pholas,    ciliated    membrane    of, 

66 

Pirates,    oyster,    cruelties    prac- 
tised by,  221 

recruiting  of  crews  by,  221 
depredations  of,  220 
of  Maryland,  218 
Pliny,    reference    by,    to    early 

oyster  culture,  69 
Plymouth  clam  flats,  279,  316 
Polar  cells,  43 

bear,  soft  clam  eaten  by,  278 
Ponds,  oyster,  in  France,  83 
Potomac  River,  207 
Private    ownership    of    beaches, 

315 
Puget  Sound,  planting  of  native 

oysters  in,  270 
no     reproduction    of     eastern 

oysters  in,  272 
the  soft  clam  in,  319 

Quahaug,  derivation  of  name  of, 
321  (see  Hard  clam) 

Racks,  use  of,  in  French  oyster 
culture,  84 

Rappahannock  River,  illegal 
dredging  in,  219 

Raritan  Bay  oyster  field,  204 

Reproduction  of  eastern  oys- 
ter not  possible  in  Puget 
Sound,  272 


Revenue  from  Chesapeake  Bay, 

223 
an  object  of  laws  in  Maryland 

and  Virginia,  228 
from   oyster  leases   in   Mary- 
land, 218 

Ripple  marks  on  clam  flats,  285 
Ryder,  Professor  J.  A.,  experi- 
ments  of,   on  artificial    fer- 
tilization of  oyster  eggs,  114 

St.   Bernard   Parish,  freshening 

of  waters  of,  263 
natural  oyster  beds  of,  256 
shell  accumulations  of,  257 
shore  of,  256 
tides  in,  257 
Sale  of  bottoms,  objections  to, 

181 
Salinity  of  water,  determination 

of,  97 
affecting   the   soft   clam,   288, 

in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  54,  265 
maximum  and  minimum,  and 

reproduction,  99 
sudden  changes  of,  99 
its   variation   in   North   Caro- 
lina, 242 
Sand,  reclaiming  bottoms  by  use 

of,  84 

shifting  of,    127,   248 
San     Francisco     Bay,      eastern 

oysters   in,   270,   271  ^ 
Scallops,     Atlantic     species    of, 

280,  336 

attachment  of,  342 
breeding  season  of,  340 
ciliation  of  the  gills  of,  64 
common  names  of,  335 
creeping  habit  of,  344 
distribution  of,  335,  339 
dredging  of,  339 
enemies   of,   348 
eyes  of,  336 
foot  of,  341 
freshening  of,  334 
gills  of,  32 
growth  of,  345 
hermaphroditism  in,  24 
length  of  life  of,  346,  34$ 
life  of,  prolonged  beyond  the 
reproductive  period,  347 


360 


Index 


Scallops : 

supposed  migration  of,  337 
preparation    of,    for    market, 

335 

high  price  of,  334 
seed,  348 
shell  of,  333 
swimming  habit  of  adult  of, 

336 

of  embryo  of,  341 
Scientific     experiment,     bottoms 
reserved    for,   in   Louisiana, 
267 

Seaweeds,    their    effect    on    the 

feeding  of  oysters,  127,  163 

Seed     oysters,    care    of,    after 

planting,  126 
end   of   importation  of,   from 

the  South,  190 
planting  of,  104 
sent   from  New  York  to  the 

Pacific,  272 
size  of,  101 
source  of,  105,  202 
from  the  South  to  be  used  in 

New  England,  105,  189 
Sex,  change  of,  189 
Sexual  organs  of  bivalves,  24 
Shad,   introduction  of,  into  the 

Pacific,  270 
propagation  of,  7 
Shell   accumulations   in   Louisi 

ana,  261 
appearance  of,  in  the  embryo, 

47 
destruction    of,    by    decaying 

organic  matter,  282 
as  oyster  collector,  261 
thin,  cause  of,  189 
Sheepshead  as  an  oyster  enemy, 

159 

Shipping  of  oysters,  145 
Shucking  of  oysters,  144 
Siphon,  structure  and  function 

of,  20,   57 
Slime  on  collectors,  122 

organisms,   123 
Soft  clam  (Mya  arenaria),  beds, 

digging  of,  beneficial,  288 
breeding  habits   and   develop- 
ment, 290 

breeding  season  of,  290 
burrowing  of,  284 


Soft  clam: 

byssus  attachment  of,  293 

creeping  habit  of,  293,  294 

culture,  306,  307 

dense    segregations     of,     288, 
292,  308 

disappearance  of,  277,  318 

distribution  of,  278,  283 

effect  of  varying  salinity  on, 
288,  313 

experiments  on,  culture,  299 

former  abundance  of,  in  New 
England,  277 

growth    of,   300,    301,   302 

introduction  of,  into  the  Pa- 
cific, 9,  270 

"juice"  of,  279 

market  for,  319 

methods  of  planting,  311,  312 

natural  enemies  of,  289,  294 

New    England    Laws    govern- 
ing culture  of,  305 

nomenclature      referring      to, 
280 

position  of,  on  the  shore,  277, 
282 

seed,  300,  307,  313 

settling   of,   292,   308 

shells  of,  in  kitchen  middens, 
177 

siphon  tubes  of,  281 

yield  per  acre  of,  314 
"  Sound  stock,"  127 
Spat,   constancy   of   the  set  of, 
in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  46 

set  of,  influenced  by  tempera- 
ture, 46 

in  1899,  1 06 
Spawning  season   (see  Breeding 

season) 

Species,  structure  indicating  re- 
lationship of,  ii 

Spermatozoon,    union    of,    with 
ovum,  43 

structure  and  function  of,  40 
Sponge  as  an  oyster  enemy,  162 
Starfish,   absence  of  in  Louisiana, 
263 

distribution  of,  149 

as  a  clam  enemy,  294 

as  an  oyster  enemy,  148 

in  European  waters,  82 

food  of,  151 


Index 


361 


Starfish : 

growth  of,  154 
method    employed   by,   in   de- 
vouring bivalves,  152 
in  Puget  Sound,  270 
removal  of,  155 
structure  of,   151 
Steaming  of  oysters,  146,  209 
Stevenson,    Mr.    J.    R.,    on    the 
segregation    of    soft    clams, 
308 
Struggle    for   existence,  balance 

in,    19 

Surveys  of  natural  oyster  beds 
in  Virginia,  215 

Tapes  in  Japan,  87 

in   Puget   Sound,  320 
Temperature,   effect   of,   on   the 
segmentation   of   the   ovum, 
46 

on  the  greening  of  oysters,  86 
on  the  growth  of  the  scallop, 

345 
changes  on  clam  development, 

290 

on  soft  clams,  279,  312 
low,  effect  of,  on  young  oys- 
ters, 97 
on  reproduction  of  the  eastern 

oyster,  272 

of  the  Pacific  coast,  272 
maximum    and    minimum,    in 

reproduction,  97 
variations   affecting   the   hard 

clam,  331 
Terrebonne  Bay,  259 

rate  of  oyster  growth  in,  262 
Texas,  oyster  field  of,  267 

laws  of,  268 
Thatch,  soft  clams  growing  in, 

284,  286 
Tonging  boat,  135 

ground  in  Maryland,  219 
Tongs,  oyster,  129 
of  Pamlico  Sound  oystermen, 

244 
patent,  131 


Typhoid  fever  carriers,  dangers 
from,  168 

convalescents,  dangers  from, 
168 

introduction  of  organism  of, 
into  the  human  body,  167 

absence  of  shell-fish  laws  pro- 
tecting from,  197 

and  the  freshening  of  bi- 
valves, 171 

sources  of  infection  by  or- 
ganism of,  167 

shell-fish  as  carriers  of,  169 


Vascular  system  of  bivalves,  22 
Velum  of  the  oyster  embryo,  47 
of  the  scallop,  340 
of  the  soft  clam,  291 
Venus    mercenaria     (see    Hard 

clam) 
Virginia,    excellence    of    oysters 

from,  224 
origin    of   oyster   packing   in, 

211 

oyster  planting  in,  190 
shipping  of  seed  from,  105 
Visceral   mass,  56 
ciliation  of,  59 


Wampum,  source  of,  321 

Washington,  soft  clam  in,  319 
oyster    reserves    of,    270 

Wave  action  on  oyster  beds,  241 
in  Pamlico  Sound,  243 

Wellfleet,  oysters  at,  177,  179 
and  southern  seed,   189 

West  Washington  oyster  market 
in   New  York,  203 

Wheat  land,  available,  6 

Willapa  Bay,  planting  of  native 
oysters  in,  270 

Windlass,  use  of,  in  oyster  cul- 
ture, 134 

Winslow,      Lieutenant,      oyster 
survey  of,  244 

Winter,  oyster  culture  in,  139 


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E.  RAY  LANKESTER'S  EXTINCT  ANIMALS 

By  Prof.  E.  RAY  LANKESTER,  F.R.S.,  Keeper  of  the  Natural 
History  Department  of  the  British  Museum,  Author  of  "  The 
Advancement  of  Science"  and  "A  Treatise  of  Zoology." 
With  numerous  illustrations.  $1.75  net ;  by  mail,  $1.93. 

An  interesting  book  by  a  high  authority,  based  on  a  course 
of  his  successful,  popular  lectures.  His  narrative  is  well 
unified  and  developed,  and  his  style  so  simple  that  children 
as  well  as  older  folk  may  enjoy  the  work.  The  illustrations 
are  unusually  effective. 

N.  Y.  Sun:— A  charming  book  .  .  .  showing  that  the  greatest  learning 
can  be  combined  with  the  utmost  simplicity  of  expression  ...  a  book 
of  intense  interest  .  .  .  the  pictures  are  skilfully  arranged  to  elucidate 
the  text. 

N.  Y.  Globe:— A  great  deal  more  lively  than  it  sounds.  .  .  .  Huxley 
himself  could  not  have  talked  more  instructively  in  such  simple 
language. 

-A7.  Y.  Tribune  /—Opens  up  a  world  of  new  interest,  popular  rather 
than  technical. 

E.  RAY  LANKESTER'S  THE  KINGDOM  OF  MAN 

"Nature's  Insurgent  Son";  "The  Advance  of  Science — 
1881-1906  ";  "  Nature's  Revenges — The  Sleeping  Sickness." 
$1.40  net ;  by  mail,  $1.52. 

A  readable  and  pictorial  survey,  brief  but  nevertheless 
accurate,  of  the  recent  progress  in  the  many  branches  of 
science— all  leading  towards  the  realization  of  man's  king- 
dom— the  conquest  and  control  of  nature. 

H.  I.  Brock  in  a  three-column  notice  in  the  Neiv  York  Times  Saturday 
Review.— An  impressive  statement  of  human  progress  in  knowledge 
and  power  by  a  conservative  scientist  who  believes  man  soon  able  to 
eliminate  disease  .  .  .  exceedingly  interesting  ...  it  gathers  into  a 
very  small  compass  and  presents  sharply  to  the  layman  an  immensely 
impressive  set  of  facts  and  ideas. 

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send,  from  time  to  time,  information  regarding  their  new  books. 

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